Linguistics文档格式.docx
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◆Therelationshipbetweenthetwosubsystemsoflanguageisarbitrary.
◆Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweensoundandmeaning.
⏹Displacement(时空性)
◆Thereisnolimitintimeorspaceforlanguage.
◆Languagecanbeusedtorefertothingsrealorimagined,past,presentorfuture.
⏹Culturaltransmission(文化传递性)
◆Culturecannotbegeneticallytransmitted.Instead,itmustbelearned.
◆Languageisawayoftransmittingculture.
⏹Interchangeability
◆Allmembersofaspeechcommunitycansendandreceivemessages.
⏹Reflexivity
◆Humanlanguagescanbeusedtodescribethemselves.
◆Thelanguageusedtotalkaboutlanguageiscalledmeta-language.
●Functionsoflanguage–threemeta-functions
⏹Theideationalfunction
◆Toidentifythings,tothink,ortorecordinformation.
⏹Theinterpersonalfunction
◆Togetalonginacommunity.
⏹Thetextualfunction
◆Toformatext.
●Typesoflanguage
⏹Geneticclassification
⏹Typologicalclassification
◆Analyticlanguage–noinflectionsorformalchanges,grammaticalrelationshipsareshownthroughwordorder,suchasChineseandVietnamese
◆Syntheticlanguage–grammaticalrelationshipsareexpressedbychangingtheinternalstructureofthewords,typicallybychangingtheinflectionalendings,suchasEnglishandGerman
◆Agglutinatinglanguage–wordsarebuiltoutofalongsequenceofunits,witheachunitexpressingaparticulargrammaticalmeaning,suchasJapaneseandTurkish
●Themythoflanguage–languageorigin
⏹TheBiblicalaccount
◆LanguagewasGod’sgifttohumanbeings.
⏹Thebow-wowtheory
◆Languagewasanimitationofnaturalsounds,suchasthecriesofanimals,likequack,cuckoo.
⏹Thepooh-poohtheory
◆Languagearosefrominstinctiveemotionalcries,expressiveofpainorjoy.
⏹Theyo-he-hotheory
◆Languagearosefromthenoisesmadebyagroupofpeopleengagedinjointlabouroreffort–liftingahugehuntedgame,movingarock,etc.
⏹Theevolutiontheory
◆Languageoriginatedintheprocessoflabourandansweredthecallofsocialneed.
●Whatislinguistics?
⏹Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.
◆Observing&
questioning
◆Formulatinghypotheses
◆Verifyingthehypotheses
◆Proposingatheory
⏹Branchesoflinguistics
◆Internalbranches:
intra-disciplinarydivisions
●Phonetics(语音学)
●Phonology(音位学)
●Morphology(形态学)
●Syntax(句法学)
●Semantics(语义学)
◆Externalbranches:
inter-disciplinarydivisions
●Pragmatics
●Psycholinguistics
●Sociolinguistics
●Appliedlinguistics
●Computationallinguistics
●Neurolinguistics
⏹Featuresoflinguistics
◆Descriptive
◆Dealingwithspokenlanguage
◆Synchronic
Chapter2Phonetics(语音学)
●Whatisphonetics?
⏹Phoneticsistermedasthestudyofspeechsounds.
⏹Sub-branchesofphonetics
◆Articulatoryphonetics–theproductionofspeechsounds
◆Acousticphonetics–thephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds
◆Auditoryphonetics–theperceptivemechanismofspeechsounds
●Thespeechorgans
⏹Wheredoestheairstreamcomefrom?
◆Fromthelung
⏹Whatisthefunctionofvocalcords?
◆Controllingtheairstream
⏹Whatarethecavities?
◆Oralcavity
◆Pharyngealcavity
◆Nasalcavity
●Transcriptionofspeechsounds
⏹Unitsofrepresentation
◆Segments(theindividualsounds)
⏹Phoneticsymbols
◆ThewidelyusedsymbolsforphonetictranscriptionofspeechsoundsistheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA).
◆TheIPAattemptstorepresenteachsoundofhumanspeechwithasinglesymbolandthesymbolsareenclosedinbrackets[]todistinguishphonetictranscriptionsfromthespellingsystemofalanguage.
◆Inmoredetailedtranscription(narrowtranscription)asoundmaybetranscribedwithasymboltowhichasmallerisaddedinordertomarkthefinerdistinctions.
●Descriptionofspeechsounds
⏹DescriptionofEnglishconsonants(辅音)
◆Generalfeature:
obstruction
◆Criteriaofconsonantdescription
●Placesofarticulation
●Mannersofarticulation
●Voicingofarticulation
◆Placesofarticulation
●Thisreferstoeachpointatwhichtheairstreamcanbemodifiedtoproduceasound.
⏹Bilabial:
[p][b][m][w]
⏹Labiodental:
[f][v]
⏹Interdental:
[][]
⏹Alveolar:
[t][d][s][z][l][n][r]
⏹Palatal:
[][][t][d][j]
⏹Velar:
[k][g][]
⏹Glottal:
[h]
◆Mannersofarticulation
●Thisreferstohowtheairstreamismodified,whetheritiscompletelyblockedorpartiallyobstructed.
⏹Stops:
[p][b][t][d][k][g]
⏹Fricatives:
[s][z][][][f][v][][][h]
⏹Affricates:
[t][d]
⏹Liquids:
[l][r]
⏹Glides:
[w][j]
⏹Nasals:
[m][n][]
◆Voicingofarticulation
●Thisreferstothevibratingofthevocalcordswhensoundsareproduced.
⏹Voicedsounds
⏹Voicelesssounds
⏹DescriptionofEnglishvowels
withoutobstruction
◆Criteriaofvoweldescription
●Partofthetonguethatisraised
⏹Front
⏹Central
⏹Back
●Extenttowhichthetonguerisesinthedirectionofthepalate
⏹High
⏹Mid
⏹Low
●Kindofopeningmadeatthelips
●Positionofthesoftpalate
◆Singlevowels(monophthongs)anddiphthongs
●Phoneticfeaturesandnaturalclasses
⏹Classesofsoundsthatshareafeatureorfeaturesarecallednaturalclasses.
⏹Majorclassfeaturescanspecifysegmentsacrosstheconsonant-vowelboundary.
⏹Classificationofsegmentsbyfeaturesisthebasisonwhichvariationsofsoundscanbeanalyzed.
Chapter3Phonology(音位学)
●Whatisphonology?
⏹Phonologyisthestudyofsoundsystemsandpatterns.
⏹Phonologyandphoneticsaretwostudiesdifferentinperspectives,whichareconcernedwiththestudyofspeechsounds.
⏹Phonologyfocusesonthreefundamentalquestions.
◆Whatsoundsmakeupthelistofsoundsthatcandistinguishmeaninginaparticularlanguage?
◆Whatsoundsvaryinwhatwaysinwhatcontext?
◆Whatsoundscanappeartogetherinasequenceinaparticularlanguage?
●Phonemesandallophones
⏹Aphonemeisadistinctive,abstractsoundunitwithadistinctivefeature.
⏹Thevariantsofaphonemearetermedallophones.
⏹Weuseallophonestorealizephonemes.
●Discoveringphonemes
⏹Contrastivedistribution–phonemes
◆Ifsoundsappearinthesameenvironment,theyaresaidtobeincontrastivedistribution.
◆Typicalcontrastivedistributionofsoundsisfoundinminimalpairsandminimalsets.
●Aminimalpairconsistsoftwowordsthatdifferbyonlyonesoundinthesameposition.
●Minimalsetsaremorethantwowordsthataredistinguishedbyonesegmentinthesameposition.
◆TheoverwhelmingmajorityoftheconsonantsandvowelsrepresentedbytheEnglishphoneticalphabetareincontrastivedistribution.
◆SomesoundscanhardlybefoundincontrastivedistributioninEnglish.However,thesesoundsaredistinctiveintermsofphoneticfeatures.Therefore,theyareseparatephonemes.
⏹Complementarydistribution–allophones
◆Soundsthatarenotfoundinthesamepositionaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.
◆Ifsegmentsareincomplementarydistributionandshareanumberoffeatures,theyareallophonesofthesamephoneme.
⏹Freevariation
◆Ifsegmentsappearinthesamepositionbutthemutualsubstitutiondoesnotresultinchangeofmeaning,theyaresaidtobeinfreevariation.
●Distinctiveandnon-distinctivefeatures
⏹Featuresthatdistinguishmeaningarecalleddistinctivefeatures,andfeaturesdonot,non-distinctivefeatures.
⏹Distinctivefeaturesinonelanguagemaybenon-distinctiveinanother.
●Phonologicalrules
⏹Phonemesareabstractsoundunitsstoredinthemind,whileallophonesaretheactualpronunciationsinspeech.
⏹Whatphonemeisrealizedbywhatallophonesinwhatspecificcontextisanothermajorquestioninphonology.
⏹Theregularitiesthatwhatsoundsvaryinwhatwaysinwhatcontextaregeneralizedandstatedinphonologyasrules.
⏹TherearemanyphonologicalrulesinEnglish.Takethefollowingonesasexamples.
●[+voiced+consonant]–[-voiced]/[-voiced+consonant]_
●[-voiced+bilabial+stop]–unaspirated/[-voiced+alveolar+fricative]_
●Syllablestructure
⏹Asyllableisaphonologicalunitthatiscomposedofoneormorephonemes.
⏹Everysyllablehasanucleus,whichisusuallyavowel.
⏹Thenucleusmaybeprecededbyoneormoreconsonantscalledtheonsetandfollowedbyoneormoreconsonantscalledthecoda.
●Sequenceofphonemes
⏹Natives