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Physiologicaladaptationà
developnamingabilityà
interactionsandtransactions
Physicaladaptation:
Humanteethareuprightandroughlyeveninheight.
Humanlipshaveintricatemuscleinterlacing,thusmakingthemveryflexible.
Thehumanmouthissmallandcontainsaveryflexibletongue.
Thehumanlarynxislowered,creatingalongercavitycalledthepharynx,andmakingiteasierforthehumantochokeonthepiecesoffood,butmakingthesoundspeechpossible.
Thehumanbrainislateralized.Thoseanalyticfunctions(tool-usingandlanguage)arelargelyconfinedtothelefthemisphereofthebrainformosthumans.
Twomajorfunctionsoflanguage:
Interactional:
asocialfunctionoflanguage.
Transactional:
afunctioninvolvingthecommunicationofknowledgeandinformation
Thepropertiesoflanguage
Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.
a)System:
combinedtogetheraccordingtorules
b)Arbitrary:
nointrinsicconnectionbetweentheword“pen”andthething
intheworldwhichitrefersto
c)Vocal:
theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages
d)Human:
languageishuman-specific(交际性与信息性)
Communicativevs.Informative:
Communicative:
intentionallyusinglanguagetocommunicatesomething
Informative:
through/viaanumberofsignalsthatarenotintentionallysent
Designfeatures(uniqueproperties):
thedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication
①Displacement(跨时空性,移位性)
Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker(refertopastandfuturetimeandtootherlocations)
②Arbitrariness(任意性)
Thereisnologicalornaturalconnectionbetweenalinguisticform(eithersoundorword)anditsmeaning.
Whilelanguageisarbitrarybynature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary.
a)echoofthesoundsofobjectsoractivities:
onomatopoeicwords
b)somecompoundwords
③Productivity(能产性,创造性)
Languageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.(Creativityoropen-endedness)
④Culturaltransition(文化传递性)
Whilehumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis(everyonewasbornwiththeabilitytoacquirealanguage),thedetailsofanylanguagesystemarenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearnt.
⑤Discreteness(可分离性)
Eachsoundinthelanguageistreatedasdiscrete.
⑥Duality(双重结构性,两重性或二元性)
Languageisorganizedattwolevelsorlayerssimultaneously.Thelowerorbasiclevelisastructureofsoundswhicharemeaningless.Thehigherlevelismorphemeorword(doublearticulation)
Theabovesixpropertiesmaybetakenasthecorefeaturesofhumanlanguage.
Vocal-auditorychannel,reciprocity,specialization,non-directionality,orrapidfade,thesepropertiesarebesttreatedaswaysofdescribinghumanlanguage,butnotasameansofdistinguishingitfromothersystemsofcommunication.
[C]Thedevelopmentofwrittenlanguage
①pictograms&
ideograms(象形文字和表意文字)
Pictogram:
whensomeofthepicturescametorepresentparticularimagesinaconsistentway,wecanbegintodescribetheproductasaformofpicture-writing,orpictograms.
Ideogram:
thepicturedevelopedasmoreabstractandusedotherthanitsentityisconsideredtobepartofasystemofidea-writing,orideogram
Hieroglyph:
古埃及象形文字
②Logograms(语标书写法)
Whensymbolscometobeusedtorepresentwordsinalanguage,theyaredescribedasexamplesofword-writing,orlogograms.
“Arbitrariness”—awritingsystemwhichwasword-basedhadcomeintoexistence.
Cuneiform--楔形文字—theSumerians(5000and6000yearsago)
Chineseisoneexampleofitsmodernwritingsystem.
Advantages:
twodifferentdialectscanbebasedonthesamewritingsystem.
Disadvantages:
vastnumberofdifferentwrittenforms.
③Syllabicwriting(音节书写法)
Whenawritingsystememploysasetofsymbolswhichrepresentthepronunciationsofsyllables,itisdescribedassyllabicwriting.
ThePhoenicians:
thefirsthumanbeingsthatappliedthefulluseofasyllabicwritingsystem(ca1000BC)
④Alphabeticwriting(字母书写法)
Semiticlanguages(ArabicandHebrew):
firstappliedthisrule
TheGreeks:
takingtheinherentlysyllabicsystemfromthePhoeniciansviatheRomans
LatinalphabetandCyrillicalphabet(Slaviclanguages)
⑤Rebuswriting
Robuswritingevolvesaprocesswherebythesymbolusedforanentitycomestobeusedforthesoundofthespokenwordusedforthatentity.
ChapterIIwhatislinguistics?
[A]Thedefinitionoflinguistics
Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.
Processoflinguisticstudy:
①Certainlinguisticfactsareobserved,generalizationareformed;
②Hypothesesareformulated;
③Hypothesesaretestedbyfurtherobservations;
④Alinguistictheoryisconstructed.
Thescopeoflinguistics
Generallinguistics:
thestudyoflanguageasawhole
Phonetics:
thegeneralstudyofthecharacteristicsofspeechsounds(orthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage)(Howspeechsoundsareproducedandclassified)
Phonology:
isessentiallythedescriptionofthesystemsandpatternsofspeechsoundsinalanguage.(Howsoundsformsystemsandfunctiontoconveymeaning)
Morphology:
thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwords(howmorphemesarecombinedtoformwords)
Syntax:
thestudyofthoserulesthatgovernthecombinationofwordstoformpermissiblesentences(howmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentences)
Semantics:
thestudyofmeaninginabstraction
Pragmatics:
thestudyofmeaningincontextofuse
Sociolinguistics:
thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosociety
Psycholinguistics:
thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingsofthemind
Appliedlinguistics:
theapplicationoflinguisticsprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning
Anthropologicallinguistics,neurologicallinguistics;
mathematicallinguistics;
computationallinguistics
[C]Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics
①Prescriptivevs.Descriptive
②Synchronicvs.Diachronic
Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintime;
Thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime.
③Speechandwriting
Spokenlanguageisprimary,notthewritten
④Langueandparole
ProposedbySwisslinguistsF.deSausse(sociological)
Langue:
referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity
Parole:
referstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse
⑤Competenceandperformance
ProposedbytheAmericanlinguistN.Chomsky(psychological)
Competence:
theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage
ChapterIIIPhoneticsandphonology
[A]Thedefinitionofphonetics
thestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage:
itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.
Articulatoryphonetics:
thestudyofhowspeechsoundsaremade,orarticulated.
Acousticphonetics:
dealswiththephysicalpropertiesofspeechassoundwavesintheair.
Auditory(orperceptual)phonetics:
dealswiththeperception,viatheear,ofspeechsounds.
Forensicphonetics:
hasanapplicationinlegalcasesinvolvingspeakeridentificationandtheanalysisofrecordedutterances.
Organsofspeech
Voiceless:
whenthevocalcordsarespreadapart,theairfromthelungspassesbetweenthemunimpeded.
Voiced:
whenthevocalcordsaredrawntogether,theairfromthelungsrepeatedpushesthemapartasitpassesthrough,creatingavibrationeffect.
AlltheEnglishvowelsaretypicallyvoiced(voicing).
Theimportantcavities:
Thepharyngealcavity
Theoralcavity
Thenasalcavity
Lips,teeth,teethridge(alveolus),hardpalate,softpalate(velum),uvula,tipoftongue,bladeoftongue,backoftongue,vocalcords
[C]Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds
Broadandnarrowtranscriptions
IPA(InternationalPhoneticAlphabet/Association)
Broadtranscription:
thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonly
Narrowtranscription:
thetranscriptionwithdiacritics
E.g.:
[l]à
[li:
f]--à
aclear[l](nodiacritic)
[bild]--à
adark[l](~)
[helW]--à
adental[l]()
[p]à
[pit]--à
anaspirated[ph](h)
[spit]--à
anunaspirated[p](nodiacritic)
[n]à
[5bQtn]à
asyllabicnasal[n](7)
[D]ClassificationofEnglishconsonants
Intermsofmannerofarticulation(themannerinwhichobstructioniscreated)
①Stops:
theobstructionistotalorcomplete,andthengoingabruptly
[p]/,[t]/[d],[k]/[g]
②Fricatives:
theobstructionispartial,andtheairisforcedthroughanarrowpassageinthemonth
[f]/[v],[