liability for commercial space venturesWord格式文档下载.docx
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TheAirandSpaceLawyer
Spring,1994
*3LIABILITYFORCOMMERCIALSPACEVENTURES
FrankA.Silane[FNa1]
Copyright1994bytheAmericanBarAssociation;
FrankA.Silane
TheUnitedStatescommercialspaceprogramhasbeendependentuponprivateindustrysinceitsinception.CongressformallyacknowledgedthatthecontributionoftheprivatesectorisessentialtothecompetitivepositionoftheUnitedStates'
spaceprogramintheCommercialSpaceLaunchActof1984.[FN1]Congressalsorecognizedtheneedtoprotectprivateparticipantsinthespaceprogramfromtherisksofcostlylitigationandcatastrophicliabilitylosses.Unfortunately,itseffortstomanagetheserisksareincomplete,basedupontheinconsistencesofstatelaw,andareofteninadequate.
DuringtheerawhenthespaceshuttlewasessentiallytheonlyvehicleforthelaunchingofcommercialsatellitesintheUnitedStates,privateindustryprovidedtheupperstageboosterrockets,thehardwareassociatedwiththelaunchingofcommunicationsatellitesfromthespaceshuttle,thecommunicationsatellites,andanarrayofotherhightechproductsandservicesthatformedthebasisforthecommercialspaceprogram.Followingthe1986Challengerdisaster,PresidentReaganissuedanexecutiveorderlimitingtheuseofthespaceshuttletopayloadsaffectingnationalsecurity.Allcommercialpayloadswerecarriedintospaceaboardexpendablelaunchvehicles(ELVs)orrocketsthatweredesigned,manufactured,sold,andoperatedbyprivateindustry.Asaresult,thecommercialspaceprogramintheUnitedStatesbecametotallydependentonthecontinuedwillingnessoftheprivatesectortoinvesthugesumsofmoneyandthecontinuedwillingnessoftheprivatesectortoundertaketheenormousriskofliabilityassociatedwithspaceactivities.
Toensurethecontinuedparticipationoftheprivatesectorinthecommercialspaceindustryandencouragenewparticipants,itisessentialtounderstandandtomanageeachparticipant'
spotentialliabilityexposure.Eachprivateparticipantmustbeabletoquantifyitsrisksandtohavesomemeasureofpredictabilitywithrespecttothepotentialcostofalaunchfailureorotherproductfailure.
Participantsincommercialspaceventureshaveliabilityexposureinfourgeneralareas:
personalinjury*4andpropertydamagetothirdpartiesnotparticipatinginthespaceventure;
personalinjuryandpropertydamagetootherparticipants;
commercialliabilitytothepurchasersandusersofservicesassociatedwiththeventure;
andliabilityattheinternationallevelforinjuriesoccurringinouterspaceorintheterritoriesofothernations.
Congresshadenactedlegislationwhichmanages,tosomedegree,thefirstthreeareasofliability.[FN2]Theinternationalcommunityhasadoptedtreatiesestablishingamechanismdealingwiththefourth.
Thispapertouchesbrieflyuponeachoftheareasofliabilityandtheapplicablelaws.Italsoaddressestheproblemsassociatedwithcongressionalattemptstomanagetheliabilitiesoftheprivatesector.
LiabilitytoThirdParties
Intheabsenceoffederallegislation,participantsinacommercialspaceventurearepotentiallyliabletoanyonesufferingpersonalinjuryorpropertydamagecausedbytheirproductsorservices.Thenatureandextentoftheliabilityisgovernedgenerallybycommonlawtortprinciplesofthestateinwhichtheinjuryoccurredorthestatehavingthegreatestinterestintheoutcomeofthespecificclaim.Inmostinstances,theapplicablestatelawwouldimposeliabilityupontheresponsibleparticipantsthatwouldbeabsoluteandunlimited.Thepotentialforeconomicdisasterisenormous.
Congressalteredtheliabilityregimeforthird-partyliabilityinits1988amendmentstotheCommercialSpaceLaunchAct(CSLA).Theamendmentsmodifiedstatelawwithrespecttothird-partyliabilityclaims,butdidnotpreemptorotherwisedisplacestatelaw.Theamendmentsimposedaneffectivecaponprivateliability,tobefundedbyinsurancewhichmustbepurchasedasaconditiontotheissuanceofthelaunchlicense.
TheCSLArequiresprovidersoflaunchservicestoobtainalicensefromtheDepartmentofTransportationforanylaunchwithintheUnitedStates.Asaconditionoflicensure,thelicenseemusteitherobtainliabilityinsuranceordemonstratefinancialresponsibilityinanamountwhicheitherexceeds$500millionor,iflessthan$500million,isthemaximumofliabilityinsuranceavailableatareasonablecostintheworldinsurancemarket.[FN3]
Coupledwiththisinsurancerequirement,thelegislationimposedaneffectivecaponliabilitytothirdpartiesintheamountequivalenttotherequiredamountofinsurance,$500million,orthedemonstrationoffinancialresponsibility.[FN4]Thelegislationachievesthiscaponprivateliabilitybylettingthegovernmentassumetheliabilityinexcessoftheparticipant'
sstatutorylimit.Thegovernmentis,ineffect,theindemnitoroftheprivateparticipantforall“successfulclaims”thatexceedthestatutorycapuptoanaggregatesumof$15million.[FN5]
Thepracticalimpactofthislegislationistofixthecostofthird-partyliabilitytothelicenseeatthecostoftheinsurancecoverage.Thecostoftheliabilityinsuranceisinvariablypassedontothepurchaserofthelaunchservices.SincethestatuteappliesequallytoalllaunchesintheUnitedStates,thereisnocompetitivedisadvantagetothosecompetingforthelaunchservicemarket.
Bycappingthelicensee'
sliabilityat$500million,thelegislationeffectivelyeliminatestheriskofopen-endedliability,whichwouldmakeliabilityinsurancecoverageextremelyexpensiveorunavailableatanyprice.Whilesomemaydebatethereasonablenessofthelimitsofliability,thelegislationensuresthatprovidersoflaunchservicesarenotexposedtopotentiallycatastrophiclossesandthattheyareabletoobtainadequatelevelsofliabilityinsuranceatreasonableprices.
OtherParticipantsintheSpaceVenture
Thesecondgeneralareaofpotentialliabilityconcernspersonalinjury,propertydamage,orlosstootherparticipants.Congresshasalsoattemptedtomanagethisformofliabilityinthe1988amendmentstotheCSLAbutitsmethodismarkedlydifferentfromthoseoutlinedunderthethird-partyliabilityprovisions.Unlikethird-partyliability,thelegislationgoverningliabilityamonglaunchparticipantsdoesnotrelyuponliabilitylimitsormandatoryinsurance.Instead,itrequiresthelicenseetoissuecrosswaiversofliabilityinfavorofallotherparticipants.Crosswaiversalsomustbeobtainedfromallotherparticipantsintheventure.
Thecrosswaiversofliabilityarecontracttermswherebyeachparticipantagreestobeartheriskofitsownlossestopersonsorproperty,regardlessofwhomaybeatfault,andtowaiveallrightsagainstotherparticipantsinthesamespaceventure.Eachparticipantisinthebestpositiontoknowitsownlosspotentialandtoobtainadequateinsurance.Thewaiversareintendedtoavoidlitigationandthepotentiallycatastrophiclosseswhichcanarisewhentheventuregoeswrong.
TheCSLArequireslicenseestoobtaincrosswaiversofliabilityfromallparticipantsintheventure,includingcontractors,subcontractorsand,perhapsmostimportant,customersaswellascontractorsandsubcontractorsofcustomers.[FN6]Itisimportanttonote,however,thateventhroughthecrosswaiversofliabilityareaconditiontotheissuanceofalaunchlicense,thestatutedoesnotautomaticallyimplytheexistenceofacrosswaiverofliabilitywherethereisnone.Ifthelicenseeoroneoftheotherparticipantsfailstoobtainacontractualcrosswaiver,thefailurecouldleadtothecancellationofthelaunchlicenseorotheradministrativesanctions.Thelawwillnotimplyacrosswaiverofliabilityclausetoprotecttheparticipantfromliabilitywherethecontractitselfdoesnotcontainexpresscrosswaiversofliabilitylanguage.
ThiswasthecostlylessonlearnedbyMartinMariettaCorporationafteralaunchfailurethatresultedinthelossofanINTELSATsatelliteandtriggeredenormousfinanciallossesandcostlylitigation.[FN7]In1988,MartinMariettasufferedalaunchfailureofanINTELSATsatelliteduringanattemptedlaunchaboarditsTitanIIIrocket.Thelossresultedfromseparationproblemsthatpreventedthesatellitefromreachinggeostationary*5orbit,leavingitstrandedinanorbitwherethesatellitewasessentiallyuseless.Thelaunchfailureresultedinalossoftheusefulvalueofthesatellite,withthecostofrescueestablishedat$90millionandthecostoftheill-fatedlaunchat$120million.
MartinMariettarecognizeditspotentialliabilityexposure.Ratherthanwaitingtobesued,itfiledapreemptivelawsuitagainstINTELSAT.MartinMariettasoughtadeclarationfromthecourtcontendingthatthecorporationwasinsulatedfromliabilitybasedupon(a)theprovisionsoftheCSLArequiringcrosswaiversofliabilityand(b)thecontractualdisclaimeroftortliabilityinthecontractbetweenMartinMariettaandINTELSAT.
ThecontractbetweenMartinMariettaandINTELSATdidnotcontainanexpresscrosswaiverofliabilityclauseaslegallyrequiredasaconditionofthelaunch.MartinMariettaarguedthatthetermsoftheCSLA,whichrequirecrosswaiversofliabilityclauses,preemptedallstatelawandautomaticallycreatedreciprocalwaiversevenwheresuchwaiverswerenotincludedexpresslyinthecontracts.Thetrialcourtdisagreedandheldthatthelicensee'
sfailuretoobtaintherequiredcrosswaiverofliabilityclausecouldresultinadministrativesanctionsbutthatthelawdidnotimplyacrosswaiverofliabilitytoprotec