汀图梅Word文件下载.docx

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BySarahRosenberg

February2004

source:

http:

//www.beyondintractability.org/essay/face/

MuchhasbeenwrittenabouttheCubanmissilecrisisof1962.Oneperspectiveputforthbyaleadingresearcheronfacetheories,StellaTing-Toomey,isthatthenegotiationcamedowntohowbothsidescouldretreattomorepeacefulpositionswithoutlosingface,orcausinglossoffaceforeachother.Fromthecorrespondencebetweenthetwoleaders（KennedyandKhrushchev）,[1]itisapparentthattheyweretryingtofigureouthowtheycouldbothretainpersonalandnationalhonorinrelationtoeachotherandtotheinternationalarena.Kennedy,inhismemoirs,wroteaboutthesevenlessonshelearnedduringthecrisis,numbersixbeing,"

Don'

thumiliateyouropponent,"

whichis,ofcourse,acentralfaceissue.And,asTing-Toomeyputit,"

Byunderstandingtheface-honoringprocessintuitively,intellectually,anddiplomatically,thetwostatesmenlearnedtohonorandgivefacemutuallyintheeyesoftheirsalientreferentsandinthearenaofinternationaldiplomacy."

Face:

AGeneralDefinition:

Faceisamulti-facetedterm,anditsmeaningisinextricablylinkedwithcultureandothertermssuchashonoranditsopposite,humiliation.Savingfaceorgivingfacehasdifferentlevelsofimportance,dependingonthecultureorsocietywithwhichoneisdealing.Perhapsthemostfamiliartermtomanyis"

savingface,"

whichweunderstandsimplytomeannotbeingdisrespectfultoothersinpublic,ortakingpreventiveactionssothatwewillnotappeartolosefaceintheeyesofothers.Somewillimmediatelyassociatetheterm"

face"

withSino-Japanesecultures,butitwouldbeamistaketothinkthatthosearetheonlycaseswherefaceissuesareimportant.IntheCubanmissilecrisis,itwasveryimportantbothsidesnottolosefaceorcredibility,andthisneedguidedbothsides'

negotiatingtactics.

Ting-Toomeydefinesfaceas"

theinteractionbetweenthedegreeofthreatsorconsiderationsonepartyofferstoanotherparty,andthedegreeofclaimforasenseofself-respect（ordemandforrespecttowardone'

snationalimageorculturalgroup）putforthbytheotherpartyinagivensituation."

[2]Specifictoface-negotiationtheory,faceisunderstoodastheimageoneprojectsofoneselforone'

snationalimageinapublicforum.AsBrownunderstoodtheissue:

Amongthemosttroublesomekindsofproblemsthatariseinnegotiationaretheintangibleissuesrelatedtolossofface.Insomeinstances,protectingagainstlossoffacebecomessocentralanissuethatitswampstheimportanceofthetangibleissuesatstakeandgeneratesintenseconflictsthatcanimpedeprogresstowardagreementandincreasesubstantiallythecostsofconflictresolution.[3]

Low-Contextvs.High-ContextCultures

Tounderstandtherelevanceoffaceindifferentcultures,onemustlearnhowtoidentifylow-contextandhigh-contextsocietiesbehavior.Itisimportanttonotethatmanyculturesareneitherwhollylow-contextnorhigh-context,butinsteadcombinethetwo,andthatthecontextmayvarydependingonthesituation.However,theseprinciplesarehelpfulasaframeworkfordiscussionandanalysis.andwhattypesofcharacteristicstheyeachimply,especiallyinnegotiating

Ingeneral,theU.S.andotherWesterncountriesareconsideredlow-contextsocieties.Thismeansthatverbalcommunicationismostoftendirect,andthatthereisverylittleconcernorneedfornonverbalcuesinorderforpeopletounderstandeachother.RaymondCohen,arespectedresearcheroncultureandnegotiation,explainsthatatthecoreofalow-contextsocietyisthebeliefinthefreedomoftheindividual,hencetheterm"

individualistic"

societies.

Inthesesocieties,individualrightssupercedeblinddutytoone'

sfamily,clan,ethnicgroup,ornation.Peoplegenerallytryto"

saywhattheymeanandmeanwhattheysay."

Inindividualisticsocieties,"

[e]qualityistheprevailingethicinsocietyandpolitics.Statusisacquired,notinherited..."

and,moreimportantly,"

...contract,notcustom,prescribestheindividual'

slegalobligationtoagiventransaction,roleorcourseofaction."

[4]Inthesesocieties,itisindividual,personalguiltthatservesasamoralcompass.Ifonecommitsasocialblunderasanadult,inmostcases,thereisnogroupshameinvolved,onlypersonalembarrassment,and（onehopes）adesiretocorrectthewrongwithasincereapology.Conflictsareseenasanaturalpartoflife;

theyaresimplydealtwithandthenpeoplemoveon.Inindividualisticsocieties,intheoryifnotalwaysinpractice,peoplearefreetomoveandassociatethemselveswithanygroupstheylike.Inlightofallthis,theplacethatfaceissuesholdinlow-contextculturesisnotnearlyasimportantasincollectivisticsocieties.Butwhencommunicatingwithcultural"

others,"

itisobviouslyextremelyimportanttomakeoneselfawareofpossibledifferencesbeforehand.Face,itturnsout,isquiteaseriousissueinmanyplaces.

High-contextsocietiesincludecountriessuchasKorea,China,andJapaninAsia,Middle-EasterncountriessuchasEgyptandIran,[5]andLatinAmericancountries.Sometimes,theseculturesarereferredtoascollectivistic,orinterdependent.Veryoften,thesehigh-contextculturesarehierarchicalandtraditionalsocietiesinwhichtheconceptsofshameandhonoraremuchmoreimportantthantheyareinlow-contextsocieties.[6]

Inhigh-contextcultures,groupharmonyisofutmostimportance.Peopleintheseculturesdislikedirectconfrontation,andforthemostpartavoidexpressingaclear"

no."

Evasionandinaccuracyarepreferredinordertokeepappearancespleasant.Thereisadangeroflosingfacesimplybynotreachinganagreementwithanotherpersonorgroup,ifthatwasthegoal.Beinghumiliatedbeforethegroup,orlosingfacebeforeone'

sconstituents,canbeafateworsethandeathinsomecases.[7]

Waysinwhichonecanlosefaceinclude:

∙arebuffedoverture

∙exposuretopersonalinsult

∙exposuretoaderogatoryremarkordisregardforone'

sstatus

∙beingforcedtogiveupacherishedvalue

∙makingwhatmaylaterbeseenasan"

unnecessary"

concession

∙failuretoachievegoals

∙revelationofpersonalinadequacy

∙damagetoavaluedrelationship.[8]

Thekeydifferencetorememberhereisthathigh-contextcultureswanttorepairorbuildrelationshipswhilelow-contextculturesmostoftendesiretosimplyproblem-solveandmoveon.

Somewhereinthisdifferenceinthinkingandbehaviorliesthekeytotheimportanceoffaceininterdependentcultures.

ImportanceinCommunicationandLanguage

High-contextcommunicationisprimarilyconcernedwithmaintainingfaceandgroupharmony.[9]Everywordisconsideredcarefully,andmanyexpressionsofrespectandcourtesyareincluded.Thesecommunicatorsareconcernedaboutlosingface,andwillusuallyemployevasivenessinsteadofexplicitdisagreement,becausebeingrebuffedcouldcauselossofface.Thisiswhentone,phrasing,andbodylanguagebecomeveryimportant.Forexample,low-contextnegotiatorsoftenhavetroublerecognizinga"

no"

whenahigh-contextnegotiatorexpressesavague,non-bindingformofanaffirmative.

Forthelow-contextcommunicator,languageisameanstofindandconveyinformation.Oneisnotoffendedwhenmetwithcontradiction,Cohensays,becauseindividualisticsocietiesthriveondebateandthefundamentalbeliefinthefreedomofexpression.One'

sbehaviorisguidedbyasenseofpersonalresponsibilityandapersonalsenseofguilt,ratherthanbyshameinflictedbythegroup;

asaresult,communicationismuchlesscarefullywatchedthanincollectivisticcultures,wherehumiliationistobeavoidedatallcosts.

ImportanceinNegotiation

AccordingtoCohen,ahigh-contextnegotiator'

snightmareislossofface.Aslistedabove,therearemanywaysinwhichthismighthappen,andheorshewilldoeverythinginordertoensurethatitwillnot 

happen.Ahigh-contextnegotiatorpreferstotakeasmuchuncertaintyaspossibleoutofthepicture.Evenfailuretoreachanagreementcanresultinlossofface,soheorshewilltrytoforeseeandplaneveryaspectoftheensuingnegotiationinordertopreventfailure.CohenlistsChinaandJapanastwodifferentstrategicexamplesforhowthisisdone.ManyJapanesenegotiatorsengageinextensiveinformationgathering,sothattheyknowthepositionsaheadoftimeandcanthenadjusttheirownpositiontowhattheythinkwillberealistic.Chinesestrategyistheexactopposite.Theymakesurethattheotherpartyisquiteawareofnonnegotiablepositionsaheadoftime.Theywillonlycometothetableifthesetermshavealreadybeenimplicitlyaccepted.Mostlikely,theywillnotcometothetableiftheythinkthereistoomuchpotentialforhumiliationandlossofdignity.Thecommondenominatorbetweenthesetwopositions,accordingtoCohen,is"

avoidingaleapintotheunknown"

anddiminishingthepossibilitiesforlossoffaceaheadoftime.[10]

Ting-Toomey'

sFace-NegotiationModel

sarticle,IntergroupDiplomaticCommunication,highlightsthefactthatduringnegotiation,therearetwosimultaneousfaceprocessesgoingon.Althoughmuchmoreattentionhasbeengiveninthepasttoface-threateningbehaviors,face-honoringprocessesalsooccur.Shearguesthatdiplomatsmustlearnthatface-maintenanceisthekeytosuccessfulinter-groupnegotiation.Byface-maintenance,shemeans"

thedesiretoprojectanimageofstrengthandcapability,orconversely,toavoidprojectinganimageofincapability,weakness,orfoolishness."

[11]Thefollowingfigurehelpstoexplainthismodel.

Face-threateningprocessesincludeface-savingandf