schema theorydoc文档格式.docx

schema theorydoc文档格式.docx

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Listeninghasoftenbeenregardedasapassiveskill.Thisismisleading,becauselisteningcomprehensiondemandsactiveinvolvementfromthehearer.Inordertoreconstructthemessagethatthespeakerintends,thehearermustactivelycontributeknowledgefrombothlinguisticandnon-linguisticandsources"

（Littlewood,1981:

66）.Thus,thebackgroundknowledgeandpriorexperienceplaysanimportantroleinlisteningcomprehension.Thisisthecentralideaofschematheory.TheBritishpsychologistFrederickBarlettisthefirsttoputforwardtheschematheoryinhisworksRemembering（1932）,inwhichhedefineditasfollows:

schemareferstoanactiveorganizationofpastrelations,orofpastexperienceswhichmustalwaysbesupposedtobeoperatinginanywell-adaptedorganicresponse.Accordingtothistheory,thepastexperiencesandknowledgemustbeorganizedandmanageable,andtheywillprovidetheframeworkanddirectionforthehearers.

1.2OrganizationofthePaper

Thepaperconsistsoffiveparts.Part1presentstheresearchbackgroundandtheorganizationofthepaper.Part2presentstheintroductionofschematheoryincludingitsdefinition,featuresandcategories.Part3presentsthefactorswhicheffectlisteningcomprehension.Part4presentstheapplicationofschematheoryinlistening.Thispartwillintroducetwoschemalisteningmodels,theapplicationofschemainlisteningandtherelatedsuggestionsinlisteningteaching.Thelastpartistheconclusion.Theschemaemphasizesonactivatingtheexistingschematobuildtherelationshipbetweenthepriorexperiencesandnewinformation.ItisaneffectiveandpracticalwayforEnglishlisteningteaching.

2.0SchemaTheory

Thecurrentpartwillfocusonthebasicideasofschematheoryincludingthedefinition,features,andmaincategories.

2.1DefinitionofSchemaTheory

Lastparthasmentionedthatit’sBarlettwhofirstlyusethetermofschema.Afterthat,manydefinitionsweregiventoschemainpsycholinguisticfield.AmericanhumanintelligenceexpertRumelhartadds,theknowledgeinourmindispackedintounitsandtheseunitsaretheschemata.Healsoholdstheideathattheschemahasthestereotypedstructureandcontainingelements.

AccordingtoCarrellandEisterhold,onlywhennewinformationandknowledgebuildtherelationshipwiththepreviouslyacquiredknowledgeandexperiences,cantheyhavethemeaningincomprehension.Theseacquiredknowledgeandexperiencesarecalledschemata.

Definitionsofschemaarevarious,butthecoreofschematheoryisthatschemaisorganizedknowledgestructurejustlikeanetworkwhichcanprovideframeworkanddirectionforlisteningcomprehension.

2.2FeaturesofSchema

2.2.1Hierarchically-constructedStructure

Schemaisconsistofvariedkindsofknowledge,it’sarrangementishierarchicaltopresentknowledgeofalllevelfromabstractsuchasscience,philosophy,toparticularobjects,suchasgirl,dog.Everyschemahasitssub-schemaandsuper-schema.Forexample,theschema“cat”mightbethecomponentoftheschemafor“animal”or“pet”or“livingthings”;

italsocontainssub-schemasuchas“fur”，“paws”,or“longtail”.Theinformationaschemacontainsrangefromcommoneventstothespecializedone,fromthemicrotothemacro.

2.2.2AbstractKnowledgeStructure

Schemaisabstractbecausetheinformationinschemaisnotonlythedefinitionbutalsothedistinctivefeaturesandproperties.Forinstance,“desk”containsfollowingproperties:

ithasfourlegsandaslab,itsdistinctivefeatureisthatitcanbeusedforwritingorhavingmeals.Ontheotherhand,“schemaisabstractinthesensethatoneschemahasthepotentialtocoveranumberoftextsthatdifferinparticulars”（Wilson&

Anderson,1986）.Theknowledgeinschemaisgeneral,becauseithasthefeaturessharedbyalltheelements.Forexample,whentheschema“tree”comestoourmind,wewillthinkaboutallthetreesratherthanaparticulartree.

2.2.3SlotsorVariables

“Anyimportantelementorschemawithinaschemamaybethoughtofasaslotthatcanacceptanyoftherangeofvaluesthatarecompatiblewithitsassociatedschemata.”（Adams&

Collinse,1979:

4）.Thatmeanstheseslots,typicalandgeneralfactscanvaryslightlyfromoneanother.Forexample,“meeting”hasthegeneralpropertythatismanypeoplegettogetheranddiscusssomething,butmeetingsaredifferentfromeachother:

differenttopic,differentpeople,differenttimeanddifferentsignificance.

2.2.4AnActiveandDynamicConstructiveProcess

Asweallknow,oursystemofknowledgekeepschanging,becauseourworldkeepsdevelopingandourexperiencesandcognitioncapacitieskeepdeveloping,too.Theschematainmindareactiveandtheycanbestrengthened,modified,alteredandextendedinlifetoformnewschematacontinually.

Astothedefinitionofschema,therearedifferentkindsandformsmadebydifferentscholars.AccordingtoHoward,whenaschemafindsconcreteexampleintherealworld,itisactivate,becauseaschemaisconstructedwithmanyslots,whennewinformationandexistingbackgroundknowledgearematchedandfitintotheappropriateslot,theschemaisbelievedtobeactivated.

2.3MainCategoriesofSchema

Forunderstandingtheschematheorymuchbetter,scholarsproposeddifferentcategoriesofschemata.AccordingtoJames,schemahasthreetypes:

linguisticschema（Theskillsofdecodinganddiscourseprocessing）,formalschema（recognizingtherhetoricalstructureofthetext）andcontentschema（knowledgeofthecontentareaofthetext）.

2.3.1LinguisticSchema

Linguisticschemareferstothelinguisticknowledge,includingvocabulary,grammar,sentencestructure,phoneme,phraseandparagraph,etc.theyprovidethebasisforlisteningcomprehension.Itisthefirststeptodealwiththenewinformation.CarrellandEisterholdpointoutthatthelistenercouldnotactivatehisrelevantschemaunlesshehashadenoughlanguageknowledgeandhasmasteredquiteanumberoflisteningskillsatacertainlevel.Iflistenerislackoflinguisticknowledge,hecanhardlycomprehendthenewinformation.Forexample,iflistenerislackofknowledgeaboutstress,linking,elisionandassimilation,hewillencountermanyproblemsduringlisteningcomprehension.Takethefollowingdialogueforexample:

Man:

Mybikedoesn’tworkagain!

HowcanIgotoschool?

Woman:

Hadmybikebeenrepaired,Iwouldbegladtolendittoyou.

Question:

Whatdoesthewomanmean?

Inthisdialogue,ifthelistenerdoesn’tknowtherelevantschemataaboutsubjunctivemoods,hewillmisunderstandthewoman’swords.

2.3.2ContentSchema

Contentschemareferstothebackgroundknowledgeaboutthetopic.Ithelpslistenerstoconnecttheirownknowledgewiththenewinformationandhelpthemtopredictthenewinformation.Thus,thefamiliarschemaalwayshelpslistenerstocomprehendeasilyandremembermoreinformation,whiletheunfamiliaronecausesdifficulties.CarrellandEisterholdpointedoutthat"

contentschemaincludesculturalknowledge,topicfamiliarity,andpreviousexperienceswithafield."

2.3.2.1CultureKnowledge

Cultureissocialheritage,ortraditional,thatispassedontofuturegenerations,sopeoplehavethesameculturetendtosharethesameschema.Justtaketheanswerto“thankyou”asanexample,theAmericans’answeris“You’rewelcome.”,whiletheBritish’sansweris“Notatall.”or“Don’tmentionit.”That’sbecausethedifferentculture.

TheChinesehasverydifferentculturefromtheEnglish-speakingcountries,whichbringsChinesesometroublesintheprocessingoflearningEnglish.WhenwelistentothenewsaboutAmericanelection,ifwearenotfamiliarwithitspoliticalsystem,wecan’tgettheexactinformation.Accordingtothispointofview,theacquisitionofsecondlanguagemeansbeingfamiliarwithcultureincludingcustoms,religions,political,habits,etc.

2.3.2.2PreviousExperiences

Someschemataaregainedfromlearninginclass,whilesomeschemataarefromthedailylife.Intheprocessionofliving,wegetknowmanythings.Muchdefinitioncomesintobeinginourbrain.Theseschematahelpustobuildthebasiccognitionabouttheworldandtoadapttothechangingenvironmentaroundus.Differentpeoplelivingindifferentenvironmenthasdifferentschemata,thustheyhavedifferentinference.Intheprocessionoflistening,thecloserthelistener’sschemaistothespeaker’s,theeasierthetextwillbetounderstand.

2.3.2.3TopicFamiliarity

“Ifthetopic…isoutsideoftheirexperiencesorbaseofknowledge,theyareadriftonanunknownsea”（Abersold&

field,1997:

41）.Thatmeansthefamiliartopiciseasiertopredictandunderstand.Thefamiliartopicprovidesaveryusefulframeworkforlistenerstoconnectwhattheyhaveknownwiththenewinformation.Forexample,astudentandanarchaeologisttakeapartinalectureaboutarchaeologyandit’sobviousthatthearchaeologistwillfeeleasiertounderstand