The Introduction To FallaciesWord下载.docx

The Introduction To FallaciesWord下载.docx

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argument"

inwhichthepremisesgivenfortheconclusiondonotprovidetheneededdegreeofsupport.Adeductivefallacyisadeductiveargumentthatisinvalid（itissuchthatitcouldhavealltruepremisesandstillhaveafalseconclusion）.Aninductivefallacyislessformalthanadeductivefallacy.Theyaresimply"

arguments"

whichappeartobeinductivearguments,butthepremisesdonotprovidedenoughsupportfortheconclusion.Insuchcases,evenifthepremisesweretrue,theconclusionwouldnotbemorelikelytobetrue.

ExamplesofFallacies

1.InductiveArgument

Premise1:

MostAmericancatsaredomestichousecats.

Premise2:

BillisanAmericancat.

Conclusion:

Billisdomestichousecat.

2.FactualError

ColumbusisthecapitaloftheUnitedStates.

3.DeductiveFallacy

IfPortlandisthecapitalofMaine,thenitisinMaine.

PortlandisinMaine.

PortlandisthecapitalofMaine.

（PortlandisinMaine,butAugustaisthecapital.PortlandisthelargestcityinMaine,though.）

4.InductiveFallacy

HavingjustarrivedinOhio,Isawawhitesquirrel.

AllOhioSquirrelsarewhite.

（Whiletherearemany,manysquirrelsinOhio,thewhiteonesareveryrare）.

Fallacy:

AdHominem

DescriptionofAdHominem

TranslatedfromLatintoEnglish,"

AdHominem"

means"

againsttheman"

or"

againsttheperson."

AnAdHominemisageneralcategoryoffallaciesinwhichaclaimorargumentisrejectedonthebasisofsomeirrelevantfactabouttheauthoroforthepersonpresentingtheclaimorargument.Typically,thisfallacyinvolvestwosteps.First,anattackagainstthecharacterofpersonmakingtheclaim,hercircumstances,orheractionsismade（orthecharacter,circumstances,oractionsofthepersonreportingtheclaim）.Second,thisattackistakentobeevidenceagainsttheclaimorargumentthepersoninquestionismaking（orpresenting）.Thistypeof"

hasthefollowingform:

1.PersonAmakesclaimX.

2.PersonBmakesanattackonpersonA.

3.ThereforeA'

sclaimisfalse.

ThereasonwhyanAdHominem（ofanykind）isafallacyisthatthecharacter,circumstances,oractionsofapersondonot（inmostcases）haveabearingonthetruthorfalsityoftheclaimbeingmade（orthequalityoftheargumentbeingmade）.

ExampleofAdHominem

1.Bill:

"

Ibelievethatabortionismorallywrong."

Dave:

Ofcourseyouwouldsaythat,you'

reapriest."

Bill:

WhatabouttheargumentsIgavetosupportmyposition?

"

Thosedon'

tcount.LikeIsaid,you'

reapriest,soyouhavetosaythatabortioniswrong.Further,youarejustalackeytothePope,soIcan'

tbelievewhatyousay."

AdHominemTuQuoque

AlsoKnownas:

YouTooFallacy"

DescriptionofAdHominemTuQuoque

Thisfallacyiscommittedwhenitisconcludedthataperson'

sclaimisfalsebecause1）itisinconsistentwithsomethingelseapersonhassaidor2）whatapersonsaysisinconsistentwithheractions.Thistypeof"

2.PersonBassertsthatA'

sactionsorpastclaimsareinconsistentwiththetruthofclaimX.

3.ThereforeXisfalse.

Thefactthatapersonmakesinconsistentclaimsdoesnotmakeanyparticularclaimhemakesfalse（althoughofanypairofinconsistentclaimsonlyonecanbetrue-butbothcanbefalse）.Also,thefactthataperson'

sclaimsarenotconsistentwithhisactionsmightindicatethatthepersonisahypocritebutthisdoesnotprovehisclaimsarefalse.

ExamplesofAdHominemTuQuoque

Smokingisveryunhealthyandleadstoallsortsofproblems.Sotakemyadviceandneverstart."

Jill:

Well,Icertainlydon'

twanttogetcancer."

I'

mgoingtogetasmoke.WanttojoinmeDave?

Well,Iguesssmokingcan'

tbethatbad.Afterall,Billsmokes."

2.Jill:

Ithinktheguncontrolbillshouldn'

tbesupportedbecauseitwon'

tbeeffectiveandwillwastemoney."

Well,justlastmonthyousupportedthebill.SoIguessyou'

rewrongnow."

3.Peter:

BasedontheargumentsIhavepresented,itisevidentthatitismorallywrongtouseanimalsforfoodorclothing."

Butyouarewearingaleatherjacketandyouhavearoastbeefsandwichinyourhand!

Howcanyousaythatusinganimalsforfoodandclothingiswrong!

AppealtoAuthority

FallaciousAppealtoAuthority,MisuseofAuthority,IrrelevantAuthority,QuestionableAuthority,InappropriateAuthority,AdVerecundiam

DescriptionofAppealtoAuthority

AnAppealtoAuthorityisafallacywiththefollowingform:

1.PersonAis（claimedtobe）anauthorityonsubjectS.

2.PersonAmakesclaimCaboutsubjectS.

3.Therefore,Cistrue.

Thisfallacyiscommittedwhenthepersoninquestionisnotalegitimateauthorityonthesubject.Moreformally,ifpersonAisnotqualifiedtomakereliableclaimsinsubjectS,thentheargumentwillbefallacious.

Thissortofreasoningisfallaciouswhenthepersoninquestionisnotanexpert.Insuchcasesthereasoningisflawedbecausethefactthatanunqualifiedpersonmakesaclaimdoesnotprovideanyjustificationfortheclaim.Theclaimcouldbetrue,butthefactthatanunqualifiedpersonmadetheclaimdoesnotprovideanyrationalreasontoaccepttheclaimastrue.

Whenapersonfallspreytothisfallacy,theyareacceptingaclaimastruewithouttherebeingadequateevidencetodoso.Morespecifically,thepersonisacceptingtheclaimbecausetheyerroneouslybelievethatthepersonmakingtheclaimisalegitimateexpertandhencethattheclaimisreasonabletoaccept.Sincepeoplehaveatendencytobelieveauthorities（andthereare,infact,goodreasonstoacceptsomeclaimsmadebyauthorities）thisfallacyisafairlycommonone.

Sincethissortofreasoningisfallaciousonlywhenthepersonisnotalegitimateauthorityinaparticularcontext,itisnecessarytoprovidesomeacceptablestandardsofassessment.Thefollowingstandardsarewidelyaccepted:

1.Thepersonhassufficientexpertiseinthesubjectmatterinquestion.

Claimsmadebyapersonwholackstheneededdegreeofexpertisetomakeareliableclaimwi