Approaches and Methods in Language TeachingWord格式文档下载.docx
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1.SixApproaches
1.1TheOralApproachandSituationalLanguageTeaching
Palmer,Hornby,andotherBritishappliedlinguistsfromthe1920sonwarddevelopedanapproachtomethodologythatinvolvedsystematicprinciplesofselection(theproceduresbywhichlexicalandgrammaticalcontentwaschosen),gradation(principlesbywhichtheorganizationandsequencingofcontentweredetermined),andpresentation(techniquesusedforpresentationandpracticeofitemsinacourse).TheirgeneralprincipleswerereferredtoastheOralApproachtolanguageteaching.ThiswasnottobeconfusedwiththeDirectMethod,which,althoughitusedoralprocedures,lackedasystematicbasis.
Themaincharacteristicsoftheapproachwereasfollows.Languageteachingbeginswiththespokenlanguage,materialistaughtorallybeforeitispresentedinwrittenform.Thetargetlanguageisthelanguageoftheclassroom.Newlanguagepointsareintroducedandpracticedsituationally.Vocabularyselectionproceduresarefollowedtoensurethatanessentialgeneralservicevocabularyiscovered.Itemsofgrammararegradedfollowingtheprinciplethatsimpleformsshouldbetaughtbeforecomplexones.Readingandwritingareintroducedonceasufficientlexicalandgrammaticalbasisisestablished.
Asfasasitstheory,speechwasregardedasthebasisoflanguage,andstructurewasviewedasbeingattheheartofspeakingability.Itaddressesprimarilytheprocessesratherthantheconditionsoflearning.
Itsobjectiveistoteachapracticalcommandofthefourbasicskillsoflanguage,goalsitshareswithmostmethodsoflanguageteaching.Buttheskillsareapproachedthroughstructure.SituationalLanguageTeachingemploysasituationalapproachtopresentingnewsentencepatternsandadrill-basedmannerofpracticingthem.
Intheinitialstages,thelearnerisrequiredsimplytolistenandrepeatwhattheteachersaysandtorespondtoquestionsandcommands.Later,moreactiveparticipationisencouraged.Theteacherservesasamodel,“theskillfulconductorofanorchestra”,thelookoutforgrammaticalandstructuralerrors.
Pittmangivesanexampleofatypicallessonplan:
pronunciation,revision(topreparefornewworkifnecessary),presentationofanewstructureorvocabulary,oralpractice,readingofmaterialonthenewstructure,orwrittenexercises.
BecausetheprinciplesofSituationalLanguageTeaching,withitsstrongemphasisonoralpractice,grammar,andsentencepatterns,conformtotheinstitutionsofmanypracticallyorientedclassroomteacher,itcontinuestobewidelyusedinthe1980s.
1.2CommunicativeLanguageTeaching
Thecommunicativeapproachinlanguageteachingstartsfromatheoryoflanguageascommunication.ThegoaloflanguageteachingistodevelopwhatHymesreferredtoas“communicativecompetence”.LearningasecondlanguagewassimilarlyviewedbyproponentsofCommunicativeLanguageTeachingasacquiringthelinguisticmeanstopreformkindsoffunctions.
Attheleveloflanguagetheory,CommunicativeLanguageTeachinghasarich,ifsomewhateclectic,theoreticalbase.Someofthecharacteristicsofthiscommunicativeviewoflanguagefollow.Languageisasystemfortheexpressofmeaning.Theprimaryfunctionoflanguageisforinteractionandcommunication.Thestructureoflanguagereflectsitsfunctionalandcommunicativeuses.Theprimaryunitsoflanguagearenotmerelyitsgrammaticalandstructuralfeatures,butcategoriesoffunctionalandcommunicativemeaningasexemplifiedindiscourse.
ElementsofanunderlyinglearningtheorycanbediscernedinsomeCLTpractices,however.Onesuchelementmightbedescribedasthecommunicativeprinciple:
Activitiesthatinvolverealcommunicationpromotelearning.Asecondelementisthetaskprinciple:
Activitiesinwhichlanguageisusedforcarryingoutmeaningtaskspromotelearning.Athirdelementisthemeaningfulnessprinciples,languageismeaningfultothelearnersupportsthelearningprocess.
Theroleoflearnerasnegotiator-betweentheself,thelearningprocess,andtheobjectoflearning.Theteacherhastwomainroles:
thefirstroleistofacilitatethecommunicationprocess,thesecondistoactasanindependentparticipantwithinthelearning-teachinggroup.WeconsiderthreekindsofmaterialscurrentlyusedinCLTandlabelthesetext-based,task-base,andrealia.
Nowthattheinitialwaveofenthusiasmbaspassed,however,someofclaimsofCLTarebeinglookedatmorecritically.Theadoptionofacommunicativeapproachraisesimportantissuesforteachertraining,materialsdevelopment,andtestingandevaluation.
1.3TotalPhysicalResponse
TotalPhysicalResponseisalanguageteachingmethodbuiltaroundthecoordinationofspeechandaction;
itattemptstoteachlanguagethroughphysicalactivity.
TotalPhysicalResponseislinkedtothe“tracetheory”ofmemoryinpsychology,whichholdsthatthemoreoftenorthemoreintensivelyamemoryconnectionistraced,thestrongerthememoryassociationwillbeandthemorelikelyitwillberecalled.Retracingcanbedoneverballyandinassociationwithmotoractivity.Combinedtracingactivities,suchasverbalrehearsalaccompaniedbymotoractivity,henceincreasetheprobabilityofsuccessfulrecall.
ThelabelingandorderingofTPRclassroomdrillsseemtobebuiltonassumptionsthatowemuchtostructuralistorgrammar-basedviewsoflanguage.Asherstatesthat“mostofthegrammaticalstructureofthetargetlanguageandhundredsofvocabularyitemscanbelearnedfromtheskillfuluseoftheimperativebytheinstructor”.
Asher’sTotalPhysicalResponseisa“NaturalMethod”,inasmuchasAsherseesfirstandsecondlanguagelearningasparallelprocess.AsherseesTotalPhysicalResponseasdirectedtoright-brainlearning,whereasmostsecondlanguageteachingmethodsaredirectedtoleft-brainlearning.Asherholdsthatthechildlanguagelearneracquireslanguagethroughmotormovement,aright-hemisphereactivity.Right-hemisphereactivitiesmustoccurbeforethelefthemispherecanprocesslanguageforproduction.Animportantconditionforsuccessfullanguagelearningistheabsenceofstress.
ThegeneralobjectivesofTPRaretoteachoralproficiencyatabeginninglevel.Comprehensionisameanstoanend,andtheultimateaimistoteachbasicspeakingskills.
ImperativedrillsarethemajorclassroomactivityinTPR.Theyaretypicallyusedtoelicitphysicalactionsandactivityonthepartofthelearner.LearnersinTPRhavetheprimaryrolesoflistenerandperformer.Theylistenattentivelyandrespondphysicallytocommandsgivenbytheteacher.TheteacherplaysanactiveanddirectroleinTPR.Itistheteacherwhodecideswhattoteach,whomodelsandpresentsthenewmaterials,andwhoselectssupportingmaterialsforclassroomuse.
TPRclassareprocessedinthefollowingways.Review,inwhichindividualstudentsweremovedwithcommands.Newcommands,someverbswereintroduced.Rolereversal,studentsreadilyvolunteeredtouttercommandsthatmanipulatedthebehavioroftheinstructorandotherstudents.Readingandwriting,studentsspeakeachitemandactoroutthesentence.
TPRhasenjoyedsomepopularitybecauseofitssupportbythosewhoemphasistheroleofcomprehensioninsecondlanguageacquisition.However,TPRshouldbeusedinassociationwithothermethodsandtechniques.
1.4TheSilentWay
TheSilentWayisthenameofamethodoflanguageteachingdevisedbyCalebGattegno.Gattegno’snameiswellknownforhisrevivalofinterestintheuseofcoloredwoodenstickscalledcuisenairerodsandforhisseriesWordsinColor,anapproachtotheteachingofinitialreadinginwhichsoundsarecodedbyspecificcolors.
Itisbasedonthepremisethattheteachershouldbesilentasmuchaspossibleintheclassroomandthelearnershouldbesilentasmuchaspossibleintheclassroomandthelearnershouldbeencouragedtoproduceasmuchlanguageaspossible.
TheSilentWaysharesagreatdealwithotherlearningtheoriesandeducationalphilosophies.Verybroadlyput,thelearninghypothesesunderlyingGattegno’sworkcouldbestatedasfollows.Learningisfacilitatedifthelearnerdiscoversorcreatesratherthanremembersandrepeatswhatistobelearned.
Learningisfacilitatedbyaccompanyingphysicalobjects.Learningisfacilitatedbyproblemsolvinginvolvingthematerialtobelearned.
Gattegnoviewslanguageitself“asasubstituteforexperience,soexperienceiswhatgivesmeaningtolanguage”.ItisclearthattheSilentWaytakesastructuralapproachtotheorganizationoflanguagetobetaught.Languageisseenasgroupsofsoundsarbitrarilyassociatedwithspecificmeaningandorganizedintosentencesorstringsofmeaningunitsbygrammarrules.Awarenessiseducable.Asonelearns“inawareness,”one’spowersofawarenessandone’scapacitytolearnbecomegreater.TheSilentWaythusclaimstofacilitatewhatpsychologistscall“learningtolearn”.
ThegeneralobjectiveoftheSilentWayistogivebeginninglevelstudentsoralandauralfacilityinbasicelementsofthetargetlanguage.Thegeneralgoalsetforlanguagelearningisnear-nativefluencyinthetargetlanguage,thecorrectpronunciationandmasteryoftheprosodicelementsofthetargetlanguageareemphasized.
LearningtasksandactivitiesintheSilentWayhavet