注册会计师accaCHAPTER 1文档格式.docx
《注册会计师accaCHAPTER 1文档格式.docx》由会员分享,可在线阅读,更多相关《注册会计师accaCHAPTER 1文档格式.docx(35页珍藏版)》请在冰豆网上搜索。
IAS-InternationalAccountingSchoolwww.IAS
■Hi
Learningobjectives
•
Defineacontract
•Identifytheessentialelementsofacontract
•Beawareoffactorswhichmightaffectthevalidityofacontractandtheirconsequences
•Understandandapplytherulesrelatingtooffer,acceptanceandtheintentiontocreatelegalrelations
•Understandandapplytherulesrelatingtoconsideration
•Understandthatcontracttermsmaybeexpressorimpliedintothecontract.
Thespecificsyllabusreferenceforthischapteris1a.
Syllabuslinks
Asseenabove,theissueofcontractformationcouldberelevantinmanydifferentareasofthesyllabus,forexampleaccountingandauditing,employment,businessandfinancialmanagement.
Contractsarealsoimportantinassurance;
forinstance,akeycontractistheengagementletterbetweentheclientandtheassuranceprovider.
Examinationcontext
Contractisanimportantpartofthesyllabus.Typicallysevenoutoffiftyquestionsrelatetocontractlaw.Understandingthebasicpreceptsrelatingtocontractisvital.
Youarelikelytobepresentedwithscenariosandmayhavetoconcludewhetheravalidcontracthasbeenformed.Manycasesarereferredtointhisandlaterchapters.Theywillnotbeexamineddirectly,butillustratepointsoflawthatcouldbe.
Intheassessment,candidatesmayberequiredto:
•Recognisewhenalegallybindingcontractexistsbetweentwoparties
•Understandhowacontractmaybeenforced
Law
IAS-InternationalAccountingSchool1Thevalidityofacontract
Sectionoverview
•Avalidcontractisalegallybindingagreement,betweentwoparties,whichagreementmaybeevidencedbywriting,wordsoraction.
•Threeessentialelementsmustbepresent,namely
-Agreement
-Anintentiontocreatelegalrelations
-Consideration.
Itisalmostinvariablythecasethatthetwopartiestoacontractbringwiththemdifferinglevelsofbargainingpower.Acontractmaybemadebetweenalargeretailcompanyandanindividualforexample.Insuchcases,theagreementislikelytobeintheformofastandardformcontract,preparedbythedominantpartyandwhichtheotherpartyhasnochoicebuttotakeorleave.
Generallyspeakingthelawwillnotwishtorestrictorinterferewiththeabilityofcontractualpartiestodecidewhetherornottoenterintoacontractand,ifso,uponwhatterms('
freedomofcontract'
).However,itwilloftenintervenewhereonepartyseeksanunfairadvantageasaresultofhissuperiorbargainingposition.
Suchinterventionwillbemadebythecourtsorbylegislation.Thus,forexample,theSaleofGoodsActimpliestermsintoacontractwhichimposeobligationsonthebusinesssellerastothequalityandfitnessforpurposeofthegoodshesells.LikewisetheConsumerCreditActaffordstheconsumerprotectionwhereheentersintocreditagreements.Inrespectofexclusionclauses,inwhichtypicallythestrongerpartyseekstoavoidliability,theUnfairContractTermsAct(discussedinChapter2)mayresultinsuchaclausebeingvoidoutrightorvoidifthecourtconsidersittobeunreasonable.
YoushouldbeawarethattheEuropeanCommissionputforwardadraftregulationforanewCommonEuropeanSalesLaw(CESL)in2011.Thiswasintendedtobeimplementedattheendof2012,butcontinuingoppositionfromtheUKgovernmentandothersmeansthatitnowseemsunlikelytobecomelawinthenearfuture.TheCESLaimstopromotetradebetweenmemberstates,bycreatingaharmonisedcontractlawwhichisdesignedtoapplytocross-bordercontractsforthesaleofgoods,digitalcontentandrelatedservices.Itwillapplyonlywherethepartieschoosetoadoptit.
Inordertobevalid,threeessentialelementsofacontractmustbeshowntobepresent.Thesearedealtwithindetailinsections2-4below.Sufficeittosayherethatthoseelementsare
•Agreementbetweentheparties
•Anintentiontocreatelegalrelations
•Consideration
1.1Voidandvoidablecontracts
Eveniftheseessentialelementscanbeshown,acontractmaynonethelessberenderedvoidorvoidablebyoneormoreofthefollowingvitiatingfactors:
LackofcapacityAnindividualmustbeofsoundmindandVoidableattheoptionoftheagedeighteenoroverpersonwithoutcapacity
AbsenceoffreewillApartyshouldnotbemadetoenterintoaVoidablecontractotherthanbyhisownfreewill,ienotbyduressorundueinfluence
IllegalityAcontractshouldnotbeillegaloroffendVoid'
publicpolicy
£
•
MistakeYoushouldbeawarethatifoneorboth
partiesallegesthattheyweremistakeninsomeway,thismayaffectthevalidityofthecontract.However,thelawisascomplexasthefactsofeachcasearevariedandyoudonotneedtoknowthelawforthepurposesofyourstudies.
MisrepresentationIfAmakesapre-contractualstatementofVoidablefactthatisintendedtoanddoescauseBtoenterintothecontractbutturnsouttobe
untrue(misrepresentation)theotherpartymaychoosetoavoidthecontract
Theconsequencesofacontractbeingrenderedvoidorvoidableareasfollows:
Void
Avoidcontractisnotacontractatall.Thepartiesarenotboundbyitandiftheytransferpropertyunderittheycangenerallyrecovertheirgoodsevenfromathirdparty.
Voidable
Avoidablecontractisacontractwhichonepartymaysetaside.Propertytransferredbeforeavoidanceisusuallyirrecoverablefromathirdparty.
1.2Unenforceablecontracts
Evenifacontractsatisfiestheaboverequirementsandisvalid,itmaystillbeunenforceable.Thismeansthatifeitherpartyfailstoperformhispartofthecontract,theotherpartycannotcompelhimtodoso.
Acontractwillbeunenforceablewhereitisnotinthecorrectform.Generallyspeakingacontractmaybemadeorallyorinwritingandanoralagreementwillbejustasbindingasawrittencontract.
Howeverincertaincasesthelawprovidesthatanoralcontractwillnotbesufficient,forexampleagreementsforthetransferoflandandconsumercreditagreements(thatareregulatedbytheConsumerCreditAct1974(asamendedbytheConsumerCreditAct2006))mustbeinwriting.Notethat,increasingly,contractsaremadeelectronicallyandanelectronicsignaturecanbeusedasevidenceofthevalidityofacontractinthesamewayasawrittensignature(s.7ElectronicCommunicationsAct2000).
Anotherexamplewithwhichyoushouldbefamiliarisaguarantee.Thisiswhereaguarantorpromisestopayacreditorthesumofthedebtor'
sdebts,intheeventthatthedebtorfailstopaythemhimself.Theagreementitselfneednotbeinwritingbutthetermsmustbeevidencedinwritingbeforeanyactionisbrought.Thewrittenevidenceshouldbesigned(oracknowledgedinsomeway)bytheguarantor.
GoldenOceanGroupLtdvSalgaocarMiningIndustriesPVT2011
Thefacts:
BrokersforGoldenOceanandSMIexchangedanumberofemailsinwhichthetermsofacharterpartybySMI'
sSingaporeancharteringarm,Trustworth,werenegotiated,buttheywereneverformalisedintoawrittenagreement.Emailsearlyintheexchangehadstatedthatthecharterwouldbe'
fullyguaranteed'
bySMI.WhenTrustworthrefusedtotakedelivery,GoldenOceansuedSMIontheguarantee.
Thedecision:
TheCourtofAppealrecognisedthatcontractsareoftennegotiatedinformallybyemail(particularlyintheshippingindustry)andheldthatasingledocumentwasnotnecessary.Norwasitmaterialthatnodocumentshadbeensignedinthetraditionalway.ThetypednameofthebrokerforSMIinthefinalemailhadclearlysignifiedhisagreementtoallnegotiatedtermsandconstitutedavalidsignature.
■Interactivequestion1:
Essentialsofavalidcontract[Difficultylevel:
Easy]
Whatwillbetheconsequencesofthefollowinginrelationtoapurportedcontractbetweentwoparlies?
A
Thereisclearagreementbetweenthepartiesonalltermsandtheyintendtocreatealegallybindingagreementbutthereisnoconsideration.
□
B
Oneofthepartiesisaged17
C
ThecontractisanagreementtodefraudHMRevenue&
Customs.
D
ThecontractismadeorallyandprovidesforGrahamtopayHarrythedebtowedtoHarrybyImran.
SeeAnswerattheendofthischapter.
•Asnotedabove,thefirstessentialelementintheformationofavalidandbindingcontractisagreement.Thisisusuallyanalysedandunderstoodintermsof'
offer'
and'
acceptance'
.
•Itisamatterofinterpretationwhethersomethingamountstoanoffer.
•Thereareanumberofruleswhichdeterminewhetheranofferhasbeenvalidlyaccepted.
2.1Whatconstitutesanoffer?
Anofferisadefinitepromisetobeboundonspecificterms.Itismadebyanofferor.
Itisamatterofinterpretationastowhethersomethingissufficientlydefinitetocompriseanoffercapableofacceptance.Astatementthatisvagueandthatcannotberenderedcertainbyreferencetopreviousdealingsorcustomcannotbeanoffer.Onlyanofferinthepropersensemaybeacceptedsoastoformabindingcontract.Astatementwhichsetsoutpossibletermsofacontractisnotanofferunlessthisisclearlyindicated,althoughif,inthecourseofnegotiationsforasale,thevendorstatesthepriceatwhichhewillsell,thatstatementmaybeanofferwhichcanbeaccepted.
Anoffermustbesomethingmorethanasupplyofinformationorastatemento