Chapter one.docx

Chapter one.docx

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Chapterone

Chapterone

1.whatislanguage?

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Thisdefinitioncoversfouraspects:

system,arbitrary,vocal,symbol.Forsystem,elementsarearrangedsystematically.Itsbeingasystemensuresacommongroundonwhichtheuserscangraspitandunderstandit.Forarbitrary,thereisusuallywithoutintrinsicconnectionbetweenawordandthethingreferredto.Forsymbol,wordsareassociatedwithobjects,concepts,actions,bynothingmorethanconventions.Forvocal,soundorspeechistheprimarymediumforallhumanlanguages.

2.whatfunctionsdoeslanguagehave？

Languagehassevenfunctiongs,1,phatic（tocreateacertainatmosphereorkeepsocialcontacts）2.directive（tomakethehearerdosomething）3.informative（totellsomeonesomething）4.interrogative（togetmessage）5.expressive（toshowthefeelingandattitudesofthespeaker）6.evocative（tocreatecertainfeelinginthehearer）7.performative（peoplespeaktodothingsortoperformactions）

3.whatarefeaturesofhumanlanguagespecifiedbyHockett?

Arbitrariness—asignofsophisticationonlyhumanarecapableof.

Creativity—

Duality—

Displacement--

Culturaltransmission--

4.whatislinguistics?

Itisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesthelanguageofallhumanbeings.Itstudiesthegeneralprinciplewhereuponallhumanlanguagesareconstructedandoperateassystemsofcommunicationintheirsocietiesorcommunities.

5.whatarethemajorbranchesoflinguistics?

Whatdoeseachofthemstudy?

Phoneticsisthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage.Howspeechsoundsareproducedandclassifiedinalllanguagesoftheworld.

Phonology:

thestudyofsoundsystem—thewholeofdistinctivesoundsthatoccurinalanguageandpatternsintowhichtheyfall.Howsoundsformsystemsandfunctionstoconveymeaning.

Morphology:

howmorphemesarecombinedtoformwords.

Syntax:

howmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentences.

Semantics:

thestudyofmeaning

Pragmatics:

thestudyofmeaningincontextofuse

Sociolinguistics:

thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosociety.

Psycholinguistics:

thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofthemind

Appliedlinguistics:

theapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning.

6.whyisthatlinguisticsisscientificstudyoflanguage?

Linguisticstudieslanguagesingeneral.Itisbasedonsystematicinvestigationofauthenticlanguagedata.Threethings:

observingthewaylanguageisactuallyused,formulatingsomehypotheses,andtestingthesehypothesesagainstlinguisticfactstoprovetheirvalidity.Alinguisticfollowsfourprinciples:

exclusiveness,consistency,economyandobjectivity.

7.ofthetwomediaofcommunication,speechandwriting,whichoneisprimaryandwhy?

Speechistheprimarymedium.Ithasahistoryofatleast100,000years.Speechplaysagreaterroleindailycommunication.Alargenumberofcommunicationiscarriedoutinspeechthaninwriting.Speechisthewayinwhichpeopleacquiretheirnativelanguage.Childrenlearntospeakbeforetheylearntowrite.

8.whatisthedifferencebetweenlangueandparole?

Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofaspeechcommunity.itisrelativelystableandsystematic.Itisnotspokenbyindividual.

Parolereferstoactualoractualizedlanguage.Itistherealizationoflangue.Itissubjecttopersonalandsituationalconstraints.Itisalwaysanaturallyoccurringevent.

9.whatisthedistinctionbetweenthecompetenceandtheperformance?

Aspeaker’sperformancedoesnotalwaysequalshissupposedcompetence.

Performancereferstotheactualizationoftheideallanguageuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguageinutterances.Itisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.

Competenceenablesaspeakertoproduceandunderstandverbalexpressions.Itisstable.

10.whatmakesmodernlinguisticdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar?

Modernlinguisticisdescriptive.Itsinvestigationsarebasedonauthenticandmainlyspokenlanguagedata.Itmainlydescribesandanalysesthefactsoflanguage.

Traditionalgrammarisprescriptive.Itisbasedonwrittenlanguage.

11.ismodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronicordiachronic?

Why?

Modernlinguisticissynchronic,focusingonthepresent-daylanguage.

12.howissanusure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky’sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?

BothSaussureandChomskymakethedistinctionbetweentheabstractlanguagesystemandtheactualuseoflanguage.Theirpurposeistosingleoutthelanguagesystemforseriousstudy.

Phonology

1.whatisphonetics?

Itisthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage.Itisconcernedwithhowspeechsoundsareproducedandclassifiedinalllanguagesoftheworld.Therearethreedifferentbranchesofphonetics:

articulatoryphonetics,auditoryphonetics,acousticphonetics.

2.howdothethreebranchesofphoneticscontributetothestudyofspeechsound?

Articulatory:

itdescribesthewayourspeechorgansworktoproducethespeechsoundsandhowtheydiffer.

Auditory:

itstudiesthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,andreachestheimportantconclusionthatphoneticidentityisonlyatheoreticalideal.

Acoustic:

itstudiesthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,thewaysoundstravelfromthespeakertothehearer.

3.howdophoneticsandphonologydifferintheirfocusofstudy?

Phoneticsisthestudyofphonicmediumoflanguage.Itisconcernedwithhowspeechsoundsareproducedandclassifiedinalllanguagesoftheworld.

Phonologyisthestudyofsoundsystem.Itincludestheinvestigationofdistinctivespeechsoundsthatoccurinalanguageandthepatternswhereintheyfall.Minimalpair,phonemes,allophones,freevariation,complementarydistribution,etc.

Aphoneticianisinterestedinthephysicalpropertiesofthespeechsounds.

Aphonologiststudieswhathebelievesaremeaningfulsoundsrelatedtotheirsemanticfeatures,morphologicalfeatures.

4.wherearetheresonatingcavitiesofahumanbeingcontained?

Therearethreeresonatingcavities,pharyngeal,oralandnasal.Andamongthem,mouthisthemostimportant.Thesethreecavitiesareconnectedwitheachother.

5.whatisthevoicingandhowisitcaused?

Itisanarticulatorydimensionofspeechsoundproduction.ItdistinguishesmeaninginmanylanguagesawEnglish,itisaphonologicalfeature.Itiscausedbythevibrationofthevocalcords.

6.whatisthefunctionofthenasalcavity?

Howdoesitperformthisfunction?

Tonasalizedthesoundsthatareproduced.Itdoesthisbyclosingtheairpassageconnectingtheoralandnasalcavitiessothattheairstreamcanonlygothroughthenasalcavity.

7.whatarethevariouspartsintheoralcavitywhichareinvolvedintheproductionofspeechsounds?

Thevariouspartsofthetonguearethetip,thefront,theblade,theback,theuvula,thesoftalate,theteethridge,theupperandlowerteeth,thelips.

8.howbroadtranscriptionandnarrowtranscriptiondifferfromeachother?

Broadtranscription,onelettersymbolforonesound.

Narrowtranscription,diacriticsareaddedtotheonelettersymbolstoshowthedifferencesbetweensounds.

9.howaretheEnglishconsonantsclassified?

Twoways:

placeofarticulationandmannerofarticulation.

Byplaceofarticulation,wegetseventypes,bilabial,labiodental,dental,alveolar,palatal,velar,glottal.

Bymannerofarticulation,wegetsixtypes,stops,fricatives,affricates,liquids,nasalsandglides.

10.howaretheEnglishvowelsclassified?

Vowelsarethesoundsintheproductionofwhichnoarticulatorscomeveryclosetogetherandtheairstreampassesthroughthevocaltractwithoutobstruction.

TheEnglishvowelsdividedintotwolargegroups:

purevowelsandglidingvowels.

11.whatisthephoneticsymbolforeachofthesounddescriptionoffered?

12.whatarethephoneticfeaturesofeachofthesoundsgiven?

13.whatisthedifferencebetweenamomophthongandadiphthong?

Amonophthongisonevowelsoundforwhichtheorgansofspeechremaininagivenpositionforaperiodoftime.Adiphthongisavowelsoundconsistingofadeliberateglide.Theorganofspeechisstartinginthepositionofonevowelandimmediatelymovinginthedirectionofanothervowel.

14.whodoyouthinkwillbemoreinterestedinthedifferencebetween

15.whatisaphone?

Howisitdifferentfromaphoneme?

Howareallophonesrelatedtoaphoneme?

Phoneisaspeechsound,itisaphoneticunit.

Phonemeisacollectionofabstractsoundfeatures,aphonologicalunit.

Allophonesaretheactualrealizationsofaphonemeindifferentphoneticcontexts.

16.whatisfreevariation?

Iftwosoundsoccurringinthesameenvironmentdonotcontrast,namely,ifthesubstitutionofonefortheotherdoesnotgenerateanewwayformbutmerelyadifferentpronunciationofthesameword,thetwosoundsaresaidtobeinfreeverse.

17.whatisaminimalpairandwhatisaminimalset?

Whyisitimportanttoidentifytheminimalsetinalanguage?

Minimalpair–twosoundscombinationsidenticalineverywayexceptonesoundelementthatoccursinthesamepositioninthestring.

Minimalset—agroupofsoundcombinationswiththeabovefeatures.

Byidentifyingtheminimalpairsottheminimalsetofalanguage,aphonologistcanidentifyitsphonemes.

18.whatiscomplementarydistribution?

Whentwosoundsneveroccurinthesameenvironment,theyareincomplementarydistribution.TheaspiratedEnglishstopsneveroccurafters,

19.whatisthesequentialrule?

Assimilationrule?

Deletionrule?

20.whataresuperasegmentalfeatures?

Howdothemajorsuprasegmentalfe