办公自动化外文文献及译文.docx

办公自动化外文文献及译文.docx

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办公自动化外文文献及译文

办公自动化外文文献及译文

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2021年X月OldandNewModelsforOfficeAutomationElliotColeTheemerginggenerationofofficeautomationsystemscombinesnewandexistingsoftwareandprocedures.Whilemanagersmaybeabletoselectfromabroadarrayofsoftwaretools,theymayalsoberequiredtousecertainothers.Thisarticlediscussesorganizationdesignasthecontextforofficeautomation;maturecomputerbasedsystemsasoneapplicationoforganizationdesignvariables;andemergingofficeautomationsystemsasanotherapplicationofthosevariables.ThearticleconcludesthatManagementInformationSystemmodelsdevelopedformaturesystemsmaybehelpfulwheretheuseofsoftwareapplicationisrequiredfortheindividualworker;diffusionofinnovationmodelsrecentlydevelopedforcomputingsystemsmaybehelpfulwherethetypeofsoftwareisoptionalfortheindividualworker.Theemerginggenerationofofficeautomationsystemscombinesnewconceptsandcomponentswithexistingones.Whiletheremaybeacombinationoffirst-timeapplicationsforsomeorganizationalactivities,theremaybereplacementapplicationsforothers.Ourabilitytounderstandandplanforofficeautomationdependsontheavailabilityandadequacyofourmodels.Thisarticleexaminessomeoftheassumptionsunderlyingofficeautomation,andthenevaluatestheadequacyofcurrentmodelsappliedtotheanalysisandimplementationofboththefirst-timeandreplacementapplications.Thearticlebeginswithadiscussionofofficeautomation＇scontextfactorsinorganizationdesign.Nextisadiscussionofmaturecomputer-basedinformationsystems,particularlyManagementInformationSystems（MIS）,followedbytheirsimilaritiesanddifferentfromemerginginformationsystems.ThefinalsectionexaminestheuseofdiffusionofinnovationmodelsandtheirrelevancetoofficeautomationstudieswithinthescopeofInformationScience.OrganizationDesignOrganizationdesignisconcernedwiththestructureandfunctionoforganizations,andconsequentlyoccupiesacentralroleinofficeautomationactivities.Suchdesigninvolvestwobasicelements,thetypesofpositionsinorganizationsandcontrolovertaskstructure.Officeautomationsystemsassumethepresenceofboththeseelements.TypesofPersonnelComputershavebeenassistinghumansfornearly40years.Whatmakestheearlierusercommunitiesdifferentfromtheemergingcommunitiesisthelevelofpositionsthatareaffected.Nowmanagersarebecomingend-users.Inthepast,whitecollarworkershavebeenclassifiedasprofessional,managerial,andclerical,basedonthehorizontal（breadth）andvertical（depth）specializationoftheirtasks.Professionalpositionshavegreatverticalspecialization,i.e.,theyrequiregreatdepthofknowledgeinanarrowarea.Incontrast,managementpositionsrequiregreathorizontalspecialization,i.e.,theyrequiregreatbreadthofknowledgebutwithnarrowdepth.Managersareconsideredgeneralistsratherthanspecialists.Clericalpositionsarenarrowinbreadthanddepth.Thefirstcomputeruserswereprofessionals（scientists）whoappliedinformationtechnologytoextendthecapabilitiesoftheirworkteams.These“value-added“applications,touseLandau,Bair,andShalomterminology,includedsolvingcomplexmathematicalproblems.Today＇scomputerusersroutinelyincludeabroadspectrumofprofessionalswhousethesetoolsinpureresearch,appliedresearch,andprofessionalpractice.Next,clericalpersonnelbecameusers.Computersappearedinfunctionalareasoforganizationswithlargeclericalstaffs,whatmancallsthefirstofficeautomationrevolution.Intheseareas,applicationsincludedtransactionprocessing,forexample,payroll,inventory,andorder-entry.AutomationwasintroducedprincipallyforwhatLandau,Bair,andShalomcall“costdisplacement“applications,savinglaborcostsbysubstitutingcapitalforlabor.Currently,theusercommunityisexpandingtoincludemanagementstaff.Fewmanagersinorganizationsofanysizehavebeenuntouchedbycomputerservicesandsystems.Ataminimum,theyhavereceivedcomputerprintoutreports.Atmost,theymayhaveusedsystemsthroughsomeintermediary.Intheemerginggenerationofofficeautomation,asMartinhasdescribed,managersareexpectedtobecomehands-onusersofanarrayofsoftware.Anobjectiveofthisgenerationofofficeautomationistoremovecertaintasksfrommanagerialandprofessionalpositionsbyreallocationtoacombinationofclericalpositionsandinformationprocessinghardwareandsoftware.Opensystemsmodelsoforganizations,discussedbyDanielinthisissueofPerspectives,providesanunderstandingofthesedesignissues.ControlTaskStructureTaskstructureincludesboth

（1）whatworkoneistoperform,and

（2）howoneistoperformit.Itisthe“how“whichistheprimaryfocushere.TotheClassicalManagementofschoolwhichwasprominentearlyinthiscentury,decidinghowworkwastobeperformedwasamanagementresponsibility,notmerelyamanagementprerogative.Followersofthisschoolofthoughtdirectedtheirattentionprimarilytotheproductionactivitiesofindustry.Responsibilityforstructuringthetasksforclericalworkersisstillgenerallyconsideredtorestwithmanagement.Manyofthetasksofthoseworkershavebeendescribedasroutine,standardized,structured,andconsequentlyeasilyrationalized,i.e.,separatedintoasetofsimplesteps.Itisthislastqualitythatfacilitatesautomatingthefunction.IntheHumanRelationsschoolofthought,developmentofparticipatorymanagementallowstheworkerstohaveaninputinthedesignoftheirtasks—evenasubstantialinput—buttheresponsibilityforgrantingandapprovingtheinputhasremainedwithmanagement.Ineffect,themanagerhasstandardizedtheworkprocessesofclericalandproductionlineworkers.Organizationshaveseveralmeansofassuringthattheyareabletoproduceanoutputwhichisconsistent.Amongthesemechanismsare:

（1）standardizationofprocess—theprocedureswhicharetobefollowedinperformingatask,

（2）standardizationofoutput—specificationswhicheachunitmustmeet,and（3）standardizationofskills—instructiononhowworkistobeperformed.Thisstandardizationextendstotheformsthatareused,thetoolsapplied,andthemannerinwhichtheyareapplied.Incontrast,themanagerisgivenabroadlatitudeovertheprocessestoperformhisorherjob.Theorganizationofone＇sworkhasbeenconsideredaprerogativeofthemanager,althoughStressmanhaschallengedthisviewasameansoforganization＇sbettermanagingitsinformationflow.Ineffect,thislatituderepresentsastandardizationofthe“what“ofamanager＇swork,butnotofthe“how,“theprocesseswhichproducethisoutput.Theflexibilityofthemanager＇schoiceofworkprocessesallowsforthedevelopmentofworkhabits,whichtotheexternalobservermayseemidiosyncratic.Thetoolsusedbythemanagerindraftingmemosandreports—whetherpencilandpaper,penandpaper,dictationmachine,ortypewriter—aregenerallyapersonalchoiceratherthananorganizationalmandate.Thisflexibilityhaslongallowedmanagement（andprofessionalstaff）tochoosetobringworkhome.Duringmediatransformations,secretarialstaffmayreformatinformationpreparedbythemanagertoconformtotheorganization＇sformat,shouldoneexist.Forprofessionals,whattaskstheyperform,andhowthetasksaretobeperformedaresetoutincodesofconductwhichprovideformalandinformalguidelines.Thisisameansofexternalcontrolinstandardizingtheprocessoforganizationalwork.Professionalworkersalsoperformsometaskswhicharesimilartothoseofmanagerialstaff,e.g.,supervisingprojectsandpeople.Thesetasksmaybecontrolledbytheorganizationaccordingtoitsstandardizationofoutput.Insummary,differencesinthecontrolovertaskstructurecanbeseeninprofessional,managerial,andclericalpersonnel.Whilemanagerialandclericaltaskshavebeenlargelytheprovincesoftheirorganization—internallycontrolled—professionaltasksinvolvetheprofessionalsociety＇sstandardsofacceptability,andthusareexternallycontrolled.Inthisrespect,theorganizationhasrelativelylesscontroloverthetaskstructureandworkprocessesforprofessionalstaffthanformanagerialandclericalstaff.Officeautomationisdesignedtohaveanimpactonthetaskstructure,i.e.,theprocessbywhichoneperformsanactivity.Thesedifferencesintaskstructurecontrolraisethepossibilityofitbeingamediatingvariableinofficeautomationmodels;differencesintaskstructurecontrolmayleadtoqualitativedifferencesinofficesystemdesigns.Computer-BasedInformationSystemsOfficeautomationincludesarangeofsystems,includingavarietyofsoftwareanddata.Thecombinationmayincludedatabaseswhichreceiveinputfrommanyorganizationalunitsandfunctionalareasaswellaspersonaldatabases.Somesystemsaredesignedtobeusedbymanyworkersinamandatoryandspecifiedmanneraspartofthejobrequirementsandasaconditionofemployment.Othersystemsmaybeusedtomechanizeataskattheoptionoftheuser;theuserisalsofreetoperformthattaskmanually.ExistingSystemswithRequiredUseManagementInformationSystems（MIS）areaprincipalclassofinformationsystemformodernorganizations.MIScollectsdataforadatabase,manipulatesit,andproducesreportstoabroadspectrumofmanagersconcernedwithdecisionmakingandaccountability.ManydataentrytasksaresmallcomponentsoflargerMIS,withglobaldatabasesspanningorganizationunitsandbeingcontinuallyupdated.Inorderforthesystemtoprocessinformationprop