Chapter Five Syntax ISyntactic Relations.docx

Chapter Five Syntax ISyntactic Relations.docx

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ChapterFiveSyntaxISyntacticRelations

ChapterFiveSyntax（I）---SyntacticRelations

0.Introduction

Chapter4dealswiththesmallestmeaningfulunitatthegrammaticallevel---morpheme.Chapters5,6,7areaboutsyntax,whichisconcernedwiththelargestmeaningfulunitatthegrammaticallevel---sentence.

Twowaystostudysentences:

Insyntax,sentencescanbestudiedintwodifferentways:

i.Thestaticstudy（静态研究）ofsentencesmeansthatwedescribethestructuresofsentencestoillustratethepartsofasentenceandrelationshipsamongthem.

ii.Thedynamicstudy（动态研究）ofsentencesmeansthatweexaminehowsentencesaregeneratedbysyntacticrules.

Twotheoreticalbases:

i.Thestaticstudyfollowsthetheoryofstructurallinguistics（结构语言学）.

ii.ThedynamicstudyfollowsthetheoryofTransformational-GenerativeGrammar（TGgrammar）（转换生成语法）.

Tomakeastructuraldescriptionofsentences,weshalldescribevariouskindsofrelationsbetweenwordsandphrasesofsentences.Therearethreekindsofrelationsbetweenthem.

1.Sequential（syntagmatic）relations（顺序／横向关系）

i.Definition:

Insyntax,sequentialorsyntagmaticrelationreferstothelinearorderingofthewordsandthephraseswithinasentence.

ii.Rearrangementofthewordsofasentenceyieldseitheranungrammaticalsentenceoradifferentsentence.

2.Substitutional（paradigmatic）relations（替换／纵向关系）

i.Definition:

substitutionalorparadigmaticrelationisakindofrelationbetweenlinguisticformsinasentenceandlinguisticformsoutsidethesentence.Thatistosay,ifthewordsorphrasesinasentencecanbereplacedbywordsandphrasesoutsidethesentenceandtheresultingsentenceisstillgrammatical,thenwesaythereplacingformsandreplacedformshaveparadigmaticrelations.

ii.Syntacticcategory（句法范畴）

A.Definition:

Thelinguisticformsthathaveparadigmaticrelationsbelongtothesamesyntacticcategory.

B.Classification:

Thesyntacticcategoriescanbefurtherdividedintotwogroups:

lexicalcategoryandnonlexicalcategory.

D.Attention:

Aphraseoften,butnotalwayscontainsmorethanoneword.Sometimes,itmaybeasingleword.

3.Hierarchicalrelations（等级关系）

i.Definition:

Hierarchicalrelationshowsustheinnerlayeringofsentences.

ii.Whatmeanscanweusetorevealthehierarchicalstructureofasentence?

ICanalysis.

例如

iii.Threelevelsorhierarchies:

sentence-level,phrases-level,word-level

iv.Threeterms:

ultimateconstituents,immediateconstituents,constituents

v.Structuralambiguity（结构歧义）：

Thesamephraseorsentencemayhavetwoormoreinterpretationsdependingonthehierarchicalarrangementofitsconstituents.Suchacaseiscalledstructuralambiguity结构歧义.例如：

　参见课本120页例（6）、（7）

4.Identifyingsyntacticcategories鉴别句法范畴

4.0Howcanwedecidetowhichsyntacticcategoryacertainlinguisticformbelongs?

Answer:

Ashasbeensaidbefore,thelinguisticformsthathavesubstitutionalrelationsbelongtothesamesyntacticcategory.Thus,ifwecanlabelthelinguisticformswithappropriatesyntacticcategories,wethencandecidewhethertheyhavesubstitutionalrelationsornot.Thenhowcanwedecidetowhichsyntacticcategoryacertainlinguisticformbelongs?

Generallyspeaking,wemaydetermineitaccordingtomorphological词法特征anddistributional分布特征featuressharedbylinguisticformsthatbelongtothesameclass.Here,morphologicalfeaturesrefertoinflectionalandderivationalaffixesthelinguisticformsinquestioncantake;distributionalfeaturesrefertothesyntacticcontextsinwhichthelinguisticformsinquestioncanoccur.

4.1Nounsandnounphrases

i.Morphologicalfeatures

A.inflectionalsuffixes:

｛z｝1（pluralnumbermarker）and｛z｝2（possessivecasemarker）

B.derivationalsuffixes:

-ment,-ion,-hood,-ship,-ness,-ence,-ance

ii.Distributionalfeatures

Thetest-framesusedtotestnounsornounphrases:

A.The_______waslost.

B.Thereisa______intheroom.

C.Hesaw_______.

D.________wasinthegarden.

4.2Verbsandverbphrases

i.Morphologicalfeatures

A.inflectionalsuffixes:

｛z｝3（thirdpersonsingularpresenttensemarker）;｛d｝（pasttensemarker）;｛en｝（pastparticiple）;and｛i｝（presentparticiple）

B.derivationalaffixes:

de-,be-,dis-,en-,-en,-ify,-ize,-ate

ii.Distributionalfeatures

Thetestframesusedforverbsandverbphrases:

A.Letus__________.

B.Theboy________.

4.3Adjectives

i.Morphologicalfeatures

A.inflectionalsuffixes:

-er,-est

B.derivationalsuffixes:

-ish,-ful,-y,-less,-ary,-ous

ii.Distributionalfeatures

Thetestframesusedforadjectivesandadjectivephrases:

A.Thevery________girlwasvery______.

B.Horsesare________animals.

4.4Adverbs

i.Morphologicalfeatures

A.inflectionalsuffixes:

-er,-est

B.derivationalsuffixes:

-ly

ii.Distributionalfeatures:

WithregardtothedistributionoftheclassAdverbandAdverbialphrase,wecannotdescribeitintermsofaframeaswedidfortheothercategoriesbecausetheyusuallydonothaveafixedpositioninasentence.Theymaybeusedtomodifyadjectives,otheradverbs,verbsorsentences.

HierarchiesandLabeledICanalysis

5.1句子等级结构的四种表示法：

1）直接成分分析；2）标记法直接成分分析；3）短语标记法；4）括号标记法。

（1）直接成分分析：

WehavestudiedthemeansofICanalysisusedtoanalyzethehierarchicalstructureofsentences.Nowlet'scomparethehierarchicalstructuresofthefollowingsentences.

1）Theseapplesareverysweet.2）LittleTomrunsveryfast.3）Hisbrotherstayedathome.

Thesesentencesmayberepresentedbythefollowingtree-branchdiagrams:

Thesethreediagramsappeartobethesame.Somepeoplemaythinktheyhaveacommonstructure.Butactually,theydiffergreatlyfromeachother.So,byusingICanalysis,wecannotindicatetheradicaldifferencesofthehierarchicalstructures.

（2）标记法直接成分分析：

Inordertoovercomethisproblem,wemodifyICanalysisbylabelingeachconstituentwithasyntacticcategory.TherevisedmethodiscalledLabeledICanalysis（标记法直接成分分析）.Sotheabovethreesentencescanbedrawnasfollows:

（3）短语标记法：

However,peoplefeelthatthediagramsbyLabeledICanalysisaretooredundant.Sowemaysimplifythembyomittingthelinguisticformsatsentence-levelandphrase-level.Now,wemaydrawthediagramsagainaccordingtothismethod:

（4）括号标记法：

例如：

Thegirlputthebookonthedesk.

[S[NP[Detthe][Ngirl]][VP[Vput][NP[Detthe][Nbook]][PP[Pon][NP[Detthe][Ndesk]]]]]

5.2本单元概念：

i.Phrasemarkersmayrevealthreekindsofsyntacticrelationssimultaneously:

表示法的三个优点

A.thelinearorderingofwords句子语言形式的横向线性顺序

B.thesyntacticcategoryofeachconstituent纵向句法范畴

C.thehierarchicalarrangementofconstituents等级安排

ii.Whatisanode?

节

Eachbranchingpointinaphrasemarkeriscalledanode.

iii.Ifaphraseonlycontainsaword,itisalwayslabeledfirstwithaphrasecategoryandthenwithalexicalcategory.

iv.Twokindsofphrasemarkers:

A.completephrasemarker:

Thephrasemarkerwhichconveystheentireinformationonthehierarchicalarrangementofsententialconstituentsiscalledacompletephrasemarker.

B.partialphrasemarker:

Ifaphrasemarkerisabbreviatedbyusingatriangletorepresentalargerconstituent,itiscalledapartialphrasemarker.例如：

参见131页（28）。

Exercises

1.UseexamplestoexplainthethreesyntacticrelationsdiscussedinChapter5.

Thefirstkindofsyntacticrelationisthesyntagmaticrelationwhichindicatesthelinearorderingofthewordsandthephrasewithinasentence.Thesecondkindistheparadigmaticrelationwhichdescribestherelationbetweenthelinguisticformsinasentenceandthoseoutsidethesentence.Thethirdkindisthehierarchicalrelationthatrevealstheinnerlayeringofasentence.

Thefollowingexamplescanillustratethemajordifferencebetweenthefirsttwokindsofrelations:

Thefollowingtreediagramcanillustratethethirdkindofsyntacticrelations:

2.Givefiveitemsthathaveparadigmaticrelationswitheachoftheunderlinedpartsofthefollowingsentences:

（a）

（1）:

thegirl,theboy,theoldlady,littleTom,he;

（2）:

saw,found,got,sold;

（3）:

somebooks,anewcar,acat,apairofshoes,them;

（b）

（1）:

Mary,thelittleboy,thenicegirl,he,John;

（2）:

runsfast,studieshard,singsverywell,writescarefully.

3.Labeleachconstituentinthefollowingdiagramswithanappropriatecategory.

（a）

（b）

4.Identifytheultimateconstituents,constituentsandimmediateconstituentsinthefollowingsentences:

（a）LittleJillsangwell.

InSentence（a）,theultimateconstituentsarelittle,Jill,sangandwell.TheconstituentsareLittleJill,Jill,sangwell,sangandwell.LittleJillandsangwellaretheICsofLittleJillsangwell;LittleandJill,theICsofLittleJill;sangandwell,theICsofsangwell.

（b）Johnwasathome.

InSentence（b）,theultimateconstituentsareJohn,was,atandhome.TheconstituentsareJohn,wasathome,was,athome,atandhome.JohnandwasathomearetheICsofJohnwasathome;wasandathome,theICsofwasathome;atandhome,theICsofathome.

5.Pointoutthemistakesinthefollowingphrasemarkersandmakecorrectionsifnecessary.

（a）

（b）

6.Drawphrasemarkersforthefollowingsentences:

（Suggestion:

Ifyoufinditdifficulttodo,Isuggestthatyoumaydoitinthreesteps.）

（i）CarryoutanICanalysis;

（ii）Labeleachconstituentwithanappropriatesyntacticcategory;

（iii）Removetheconstituentsatsentence-levelandatphrase-level.

Nowletustakethesentence:

Thepuppyfoundthechildforexample.

Step1

Step2

Step3

（Youhavetobecarefulifaphraseonlycontainsasingleword.Rememberthatinthiscase,youshouldstartwithaphrasecategoryandthenmov