现代语言学笔记及课后答案.docx

现代语言学笔记及课后答案.docx

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现代语言学笔记及课后答案

Linguistics:

Itisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.

Generallinguistics:

Thestudyoflanguageasawholeiscalledgenerallinguistics.

Appliedlinguistics:

Inanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.Inabroadsense,itreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticfindingstothesolutionofpracticalproblemssuchastherecoveryofspeechability.

Synchronicstudy:

Thestudyofalanguageatsomepointintime.e.g.AstudyofthefeaturesoftheEnglishusedinShakespeare’stimeisasynchronicstudy.

Diachronicstudy:

Thestudyofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime.Adiachronicstudyoflanguageisahistoricalstudy,whichstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.e.g.astudyofthechangesEnglishhasundergonesinceShakespeare’stimeisadiachronicstudy.

Languagecompetence:

Theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Atransformational-generativegrammar（转化生成语法）isamodeloflanguagecompetence.

Languageperformance:

performanceistheactualrealizationoftheideallanguageuser’sknowledgeoftherulesinlinguisticcommunication.

Langue:

Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity;Langueisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetofollow;Langueisrelativelystable,itdoesnotchangefrequently.

Parole:

Parolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse;paroleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules;parolevariesfrompersontoperson,andfromsituationtosituation.

Language:

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.

Arbitrariness:

Itisoneofthedesignfeaturesoflanguage.Itmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Agoodexampleisthefactthatdifferentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguages.

Productivity:

Languageisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.

Duality:

Languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructure,ortwolevels,oneofsoundsatthelowerorbasiclevel,andtheotherofmeaningsatthehigherlevel.

Displacement:

languagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.Inotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.

Culturaltransmission:

Whilewearebornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagearenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearned.

Designfeatures:

Itreferstothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication

phonetics:

Phoneticsisdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages

auditoryphonetics:

Itstudiesthespeechsoundsfromthehearer’spointofview.Itstudieshowthesoundsareperceivedbythehearer.

acousticphonetics:

Itstudiesthespeechsoundsbylookingatthesoundwaves.Itstudiesthephysicalmeansbywhichspeechsoundsaretransmittedthroughtheairfromonepersontoanother.

internationalphoneticalphabet[IPA]:

Itisastandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscription.

Broadtranscription:

thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonly,i.e.oneletter-symbolforonesound.Thisisthetranscriptionnormallyusedindictionariesandteachingtextbooks.

Narrowtranscription:

isthetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics.Thisisthetranscriptionusedbythephoneticiansintheirstudyofspeechsounds.

diacritics:

isasetofsymbolswhichcanbeaddedtotheletter-symbolstomakefinerdistinctionsthanthelettersalonemakepossible.

Voiceless（清音）:

whenthevocalcordsaredrawnwideapart,lettingairgothroughwithoutcausingvibration,thesoundsproducedinsuchaconditionarecalledvoicelesssounds.

Voicing（浊音）:

Soundsproducedwhilethevocalcordsarevibratingarecalledvoicedsounds.

Vowel:

thesoundsinproductionofwhichnoarticulatorscomeveryclosetogetherandtheairstreampassesthroughthevocaltractwithoutobstructionarecalledvowels.

Consonants:

thesoundsintheproductionofwhichthereisanobstructionoftheairstreamatsomepointofthevocaltractarecalledconsonants.

phonology:

Phonologystudiesthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguage;itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.

phone:

Phonescanbesimplydefinedasthespeechsoundsweusewhenspeakingalanguage.Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.

phoneme:

acollectionofabstractphoneticfeatures,itisabasicunitinphonology.Itisrepresentedorrealizedasacertainphonebyacertainphoneticcontext.

allophone:

Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.Forexample[l]and[l]

phonemiccontrast:

Phonemiccontrastreferstotherelationbetweentwophonemes.Iftwophonemescanoccurinthesameenvironmentanddistinguishmeaning,theyareinphonemiccontrast.

Complementarydistribution:

referstotherelationbetweentwosimilarphoneswhichareallophonesofthesamephoneme,andtheyoccurindifferentenvironments.

minimalpair:

Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.Forexample:

binandpin.

suprasegmentalfeatures:

thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.Themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,toneandintonation.

tone:

Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Pitchvariationcandistinguishmeaningjustlikephonemes.Themeaning-distinctivefunctionofthetoneisespeciallyimportantintonelanguages,forexample,inChinese.

intonation:

Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.Forexample,Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation:

thefallingtone,therisingtone,thefall-risetoneandtherise-falltone.

Morphology:

Morphologyisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Itisdividedintotwosub-branches:

inflectionalmorphologyandlexicalorderivationalmorphology.

Inflectionalmorphology:

Theinflectionalmorphologystudiestheinflections

Derivationalmorphology:

Derivationalmorphologyisthestudyofword-formation.

Morpheme:

Itisthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.Forexample:

theword“boyish”consistsoftwomorphemes:

“boy”and“ish”.

Freemorpheme:

Freemorphemesarethemorphemeswhichareindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselvesorincombinationwithothermorphemes.Forexample:

“help”,“table”,“room”areallfreemorphemes.

Boundmorpheme:

Boundmorphemesarethemorphemeswhichcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformaword.Forexample:

“-er”,“dis-“,“-less”areallboundmorphemes.

Root:

Arootisoftenseenaspartofaword;itcanneverstandbyitselfalthoughitbearsclear,definitemeaning;itmustbecombinedwithanotherrootoranaffixtoformaword.Forexample:

theroot“geo-“combineswithanotherroot“-ology”,wegettheword“geology”.

Affix:

morphemesmanifestingvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchasnumber,tense,degreeandcase.Affixesareoftwotypes:

inflectionalandderivational.Inflectionalaffixesmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategories,suchas“-ing”,“-est”,whilederivationalaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreateaword,suchas“-ly”,“dis-“,“un-“.

Inflection（屈折）:

themanifestationofvariousgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,tense,degreeandcase.

Prefix:

Prefixesoccuratthebeginningofaword.Prefixesmodifythemeaningofthestem,buttheyusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword.

Suffix:

Suffixesareaddedtotheendofthestems;theymodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.

Stem:

Astemistheexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeadded.Astemcanbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformhimself.

Derivation:

Derivationisaprocessofwordformationbywhichderivativeaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreateaword.

Compounding:

Compoundingcanbeviewedasthecombinationoftwoorsometimesmorethantwowordstocreatenewwords.

1）.syntax:

Syntaxisasubfieldoflinguisticswhichstudiesthesentencestructureoflanguage.Itconsistsofasetofabstractrulesthatallowwordstobecombinedwithotherwordstoformgrammaticalsentences.

2）.linguisticcompetence:

Universallyfoundinthegrammarsofallhumanlanguages,syntacticrulescomprisethesystemofinternalizedlinguisticknowledgeofalanguagespeakerknownaslinguisticcompetence.

3）.sentence:

Asentenceisastructurallyindependentunitthatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordstoformacompletestatement,questionorcommand.Normally,asentenceconsistsofatleastasubjectandapredicatewhichcontainsafinitev