Chapter Five Syntax ISyntactic Relations.docx
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ChapterFiveSyntaxISyntacticRelations
ChapterFiveSyntax(I)---SyntacticRelations
0.Introduction
Chapter4dealswiththesmallestmeaningfulunitatthegrammaticallevel---morpheme.Chapters5,6,7areaboutsyntax,whichisconcernedwiththelargestmeaningfulunitatthegrammaticallevel---sentence.
Twowaystostudysentences:
Insyntax,sentencescanbestudiedintwodifferentways:
i.Thestaticstudy(静态研究)ofsentencesmeansthatwedescribethestructuresofsentencestoillustratethepartsofasentenceandrelationshipsamongthem.
ii.Thedynamicstudy(动态研究)ofsentencesmeansthatweexaminehowsentencesaregeneratedbysyntacticrules.
Twotheoreticalbases:
i.Thestaticstudyfollowsthetheoryofstructurallinguistics(结构语言学).
ii.ThedynamicstudyfollowsthetheoryofTransformational-GenerativeGrammar(TGgrammar)(转换生成语法).
Tomakeastructuraldescriptionofsentences,weshalldescribevariouskindsofrelationsbetweenwordsandphrasesofsentences.Therearethreekindsofrelationsbetweenthem.
1.Sequential(syntagmatic)relations(顺序/横向关系)
i.Definition:
Insyntax,sequentialorsyntagmaticrelationreferstothelinearorderingofthewordsandthephraseswithinasentence.
ii.Rearrangementofthewordsofasentenceyieldseitheranungrammaticalsentenceoradifferentsentence.
2.Substitutional(paradigmatic)relations(替换/纵向关系)
i.Definition:
substitutionalorparadigmaticrelationisakindofrelationbetweenlinguisticformsinasentenceandlinguisticformsoutsidethesentence.Thatistosay,ifthewordsorphrasesinasentencecanbereplacedbywordsandphrasesoutsidethesentenceandtheresultingsentenceisstillgrammatical,thenwesaythereplacingformsandreplacedformshaveparadigmaticrelations.
ii.Syntacticcategory(句法范畴)
A.Definition:
Thelinguisticformsthathaveparadigmaticrelationsbelongtothesamesyntacticcategory.
B.Classification:
Thesyntacticcategoriescanbefurtherdividedintotwogroups:
lexicalcategoryandnonlexicalcategory.
D.Attention:
Aphraseoften,butnotalwayscontainsmorethanoneword.Sometimes,itmaybeasingleword.
3.Hierarchicalrelations(等级关系)
i.Definition:
Hierarchicalrelationshowsustheinnerlayeringofsentences.
ii.Whatmeanscanweusetorevealthehierarchicalstructureofasentence?
ICanalysis.
例如
iii.Threelevelsorhierarchies:
sentence-level,phrases-level,word-level
iv.Threeterms:
ultimateconstituents,immediateconstituents,constituents
v.Structuralambiguity(结构歧义):
Thesamephraseorsentencemayhavetwoormoreinterpretationsdependingonthehierarchicalarrangementofitsconstituents.Suchacaseiscalledstructuralambiguity结构歧义.例如:
参见课本120页例(6)、(7)
4.Identifyingsyntacticcategories鉴别句法范畴
4.0Howcanwedecidetowhichsyntacticcategoryacertainlinguisticformbelongs?
Answer:
Ashasbeensaidbefore,thelinguisticformsthathavesubstitutionalrelationsbelongtothesamesyntacticcategory.Thus,ifwecanlabelthelinguisticformswithappropriatesyntacticcategories,wethencandecidewhethertheyhavesubstitutionalrelationsornot.Thenhowcanwedecidetowhichsyntacticcategoryacertainlinguisticformbelongs?
Generallyspeaking,wemaydetermineitaccordingtomorphological词法特征anddistributional分布特征featuressharedbylinguisticformsthatbelongtothesameclass.Here,morphologicalfeaturesrefertoinflectionalandderivationalaffixesthelinguisticformsinquestioncantake;distributionalfeaturesrefertothesyntacticcontextsinwhichthelinguisticformsinquestioncanoccur.
4.1Nounsandnounphrases
i.Morphologicalfeatures
A.inflectionalsuffixes:
{z}1(pluralnumbermarker)and{z}2(possessivecasemarker)
B.derivationalsuffixes:
-ment,-ion,-hood,-ship,-ness,-ence,-ance
ii.Distributionalfeatures
Thetest-framesusedtotestnounsornounphrases:
A.The_______waslost.
B.Thereisa______intheroom.
C.Hesaw_______.
D.________wasinthegarden.
4.2Verbsandverbphrases
i.Morphologicalfeatures
A.inflectionalsuffixes:
{z}3(thirdpersonsingularpresenttensemarker);{d}(pasttensemarker);{en}(pastparticiple);and{i}(presentparticiple)
B.derivationalaffixes:
de-,be-,dis-,en-,-en,-ify,-ize,-ate
ii.Distributionalfeatures
Thetestframesusedforverbsandverbphrases:
A.Letus__________.
B.Theboy________.
4.3Adjectives
i.Morphologicalfeatures
A.inflectionalsuffixes:
-er,-est
B.derivationalsuffixes:
-ish,-ful,-y,-less,-ary,-ous
ii.Distributionalfeatures
Thetestframesusedforadjectivesandadjectivephrases:
A.Thevery________girlwasvery______.
B.Horsesare________animals.
4.4Adverbs
i.Morphologicalfeatures
A.inflectionalsuffixes:
-er,-est
B.derivationalsuffixes:
-ly
ii.Distributionalfeatures:
WithregardtothedistributionoftheclassAdverbandAdverbialphrase,wecannotdescribeitintermsofaframeaswedidfortheothercategoriesbecausetheyusuallydonothaveafixedpositioninasentence.Theymaybeusedtomodifyadjectives,otheradverbs,verbsorsentences.
HierarchiesandLabeledICanalysis
5.1句子等级结构的四种表示法:
1)直接成分分析;2)标记法直接成分分析;3)短语标记法;4)括号标记法。
(1)直接成分分析:
WehavestudiedthemeansofICanalysisusedtoanalyzethehierarchicalstructureofsentences.Nowlet'scomparethehierarchicalstructuresofthefollowingsentences.
1)Theseapplesareverysweet.2)LittleTomrunsveryfast.3)Hisbrotherstayedathome.
Thesesentencesmayberepresentedbythefollowingtree-branchdiagrams:
Thesethreediagramsappeartobethesame.Somepeoplemaythinktheyhaveacommonstructure.Butactually,theydiffergreatlyfromeachother.So,byusingICanalysis,wecannotindicatetheradicaldifferencesofthehierarchicalstructures.
(2)标记法直接成分分析:
Inordertoovercomethisproblem,wemodifyICanalysisbylabelingeachconstituentwithasyntacticcategory.TherevisedmethodiscalledLabeledICanalysis(标记法直接成分分析).Sotheabovethreesentencescanbedrawnasfollows:
(3)短语标记法:
However,peoplefeelthatthediagramsbyLabeledICanalysisaretooredundant.Sowemaysimplifythembyomittingthelinguisticformsatsentence-levelandphrase-level.Now,wemaydrawthediagramsagainaccordingtothismethod:
(4)括号标记法:
例如:
Thegirlputthebookonthedesk.
[S[NP[Detthe][Ngirl]][VP[Vput][NP[Detthe][Nbook]][PP[Pon][NP[Detthe][Ndesk]]]]]
5.2本单元概念:
i.Phrasemarkersmayrevealthreekindsofsyntacticrelationssimultaneously:
表示法的三个优点
A.thelinearorderingofwords句子语言形式的横向线性顺序
B.thesyntacticcategoryofeachconstituent纵向句法范畴
C.thehierarchicalarrangementofconstituents等级安排
ii.Whatisanode?
节
Eachbranchingpointinaphrasemarkeriscalledanode.
iii.Ifaphraseonlycontainsaword,itisalwayslabeledfirstwithaphrasecategoryandthenwithalexicalcategory.
iv.Twokindsofphrasemarkers:
A.completephrasemarker:
Thephrasemarkerwhichconveystheentireinformationonthehierarchicalarrangementofsententialconstituentsiscalledacompletephrasemarker.
B.partialphrasemarker:
Ifaphrasemarkerisabbreviatedbyusingatriangletorepresentalargerconstituent,itiscalledapartialphrasemarker.例如:
参见131页(28)。
Exercises
1.UseexamplestoexplainthethreesyntacticrelationsdiscussedinChapter5.
Thefirstkindofsyntacticrelationisthesyntagmaticrelationwhichindicatesthelinearorderingofthewordsandthephrasewithinasentence.Thesecondkindistheparadigmaticrelationwhichdescribestherelationbetweenthelinguisticformsinasentenceandthoseoutsidethesentence.Thethirdkindisthehierarchicalrelationthatrevealstheinnerlayeringofasentence.
Thefollowingexamplescanillustratethemajordifferencebetweenthefirsttwokindsofrelations:
Thefollowingtreediagramcanillustratethethirdkindofsyntacticrelations:
2.Givefiveitemsthathaveparadigmaticrelationswitheachoftheunderlinedpartsofthefollowingsentences:
(a)
(1):
thegirl,theboy,theoldlady,littleTom,he;
(2):
saw,found,got,sold;
(3):
somebooks,anewcar,acat,apairofshoes,them;
(b)
(1):
Mary,thelittleboy,thenicegirl,he,John;
(2):
runsfast,studieshard,singsverywell,writescarefully.
3.Labeleachconstituentinthefollowingdiagramswithanappropriatecategory.
(a)
(b)
4.Identifytheultimateconstituents,constituentsandimmediateconstituentsinthefollowingsentences:
(a)LittleJillsangwell.
InSentence(a),theultimateconstituentsarelittle,Jill,sangandwell.TheconstituentsareLittleJill,Jill,sangwell,sangandwell.LittleJillandsangwellaretheICsofLittleJillsangwell;LittleandJill,theICsofLittleJill;sangandwell,theICsofsangwell.
(b)Johnwasathome.
InSentence(b),theultimateconstituentsareJohn,was,atandhome.TheconstituentsareJohn,wasathome,was,athome,atandhome.JohnandwasathomearetheICsofJohnwasathome;wasandathome,theICsofwasathome;atandhome,theICsofathome.
5.Pointoutthemistakesinthefollowingphrasemarkersandmakecorrectionsifnecessary.
(a)
(b)
6.Drawphrasemarkersforthefollowingsentences:
(Suggestion:
Ifyoufinditdifficulttodo,Isuggestthatyoumaydoitinthreesteps.)
(i)CarryoutanICanalysis;
(ii)Labeleachconstituentwithanappropriatesyntacticcategory;
(iii)Removetheconstituentsatsentence-levelandatphrase-level.
Nowletustakethesentence:
Thepuppyfoundthechildforexample.
Step1
Step2
Step3
(Youhavetobecarefulifaphraseonlycontainsasingleword.Rememberthatinthiscase,youshouldstartwithaphrasecategoryandthenmov