GRE阅读资料之文科.docx

GRE阅读资料之文科.docx

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GRE阅读资料之文科

Americanhistory

AfricanAmerican

Slaveryera

Anartist'sconceptionofCrispusAttucks（1723–1770）,thefirst"martyr"oftheAmericanRevolution.

Mainarticles:

SlaveryintheUnitedStatesandAtlanticslavetrade

ThefirstAfricanslavesarrivedinthepresent-dayUnitedStatesaspartoftheSanMigueldeGualdapecolony（mostlikelylocatedintheWinyahBayareaofpresent-daySouthCarolina）,foundedbySpanishexplorerLucasVásquezdeAyllónin1526.Theill-fatedcolonywasalmostimmediatelydisruptedbyafightoverleadership,duringwhichtheslavesrevoltedandfledthecolonytoseekrefugeamonglocalNativeAmericans.DeAyllónandmanyofthecolonistsdiedshortlyafterwardsofanepidemicandthecolonywasabandoned,leavingtheescapedslavesbehindonNorthAmericansoil.

In1565,thecolonyofSaintAugustineinFlorida,foundedbyPedroMenendezdeAviles,becamethefirstpermanentEuropeansettlementinNorthAmerica.ItincludedanunknownnumberoffreeandenslavedAfricansthatwerepartofthiscolonialexpedition.

ThefirstrecordedAfricansinBritishNorthAmerica（includingmostofthefutureUnitedStates）arrivedin1619inJamestown,Virginia.AsEnglishsettlersdiedfromharshconditions,moreandmoreAfricanswerebroughttoworkaslaborers.TheAfricanswerelikelytreatedasindenturedservants,similarinlegalpositiontopoorEnglishindenturees,whotradedseveralyearslaborinexchangeforpassagetoAmerica.[7]Africanscouldlegallyraisecropsandcattletopurchasetheirfreedom.[8]Theyraisedfamilies,marryingotherAfricansandsometimesintermarryingwithNativeAmericansorEnglishsettlers.[9]Bythe1640sand1650s,severalAfricanfamiliesownedfarmsaroundJamestownandsomebecamewealthybycolonialstandards.

Thepopularconceptionofarace-basedslavesystemdidnotfullydevelopuntilthe18thcentury.TheDutchWestIndiaCompanyintroducedslaveryin1625withtheimportationofelevenblackslavesintoNewAmsterdam（present-dayNewYorkCity）.Allthecolony'sslaves,however,werefreeduponitssurrendertotheBritish.[10]MassachusettswasthefirstBritishcolonytolegallyrecognizeslaveryin1641.Itwasnotuntil1662thatVirginiaruledthataslavemother'schildrenwouldremainslaves.[11]

Thefirstblackcongregationsandchurcheswereorganizedbefore1800inbothnorthernandsoutherncitiesfollowingtheGreatAwakening.By1775,Africansmadeup20%ofthepopulationintheAmericancolonies,whichmadethemthesecondlargestethnicgroupaftertheEnglish.[12]Duringthe1770s,Africans,bothenslavedandfree,helpedrebelliousEnglishcolonistssecureAmericanIndependencebydefeatingtheBritishintheAmericanRevolution.[13]AfricansandEnglishmenfoughtsidebysideandwerefullyintegrated.[14]JamesArmistead,anAfricanAmerican,playedalargepartinmakingpossiblethe1781Yorktownvictory,whichestablishedtheUnitedStatesasanindependentnation.[15]OtherprominentAfricanAmericanswerePrinceWhippleandOliverCromwell,whoarebothdepictedinthefrontoftheboatinGeorgeWashington'sfamous1776CrossingtheDelawareportrait.

By1860,therewere3.5millionenslavedAfricanAmericansintheUnitedStatesduetotheAtlanticslavetrade,andanother500,000AfricanAmericanslivedfreeacrossthecountry.[16]In1863,duringtheAmericanCivilWar,PresidentAbrahamLincolnsignedtheEmancipationProclamation.TheproclamationdeclaredthatallslavesinstateswhichhadsecededfromtheUnionwerefree.[17]AdvancingUniontroopsenforcedtheproclamationwithTexasbeingthelaststatetobeemancipatedin1865.[18]

NativeAmericans

ThisarticleisabouttheindigenouspeopleoftheUnitedStates.

NativeAmericansintheUnitedStatesaretheindigenouspeoplesinNorthAmericawithintheboundariesofthepresent-daycontinentalUnitedStates,partsofAlaska,andtheislandstateofHawaii.Theyarecomposedofnumerous,distincttribes,states,andethnicgroups,manyofwhichsurviveasintactpoliticalcommunities.ThetermsusedtorefertoNativeAmericanshavebeencontroversial.Accordingtoa1995USCensusBureausetofhomeinterviews,mostoftherespondentswithanexpressedpreferencerefertothemselvesasAmericanIndiansorIndians,andthistermhasbeenadoptedbymajornewspapersandsomeacademicgroups.

Sincetheendofthe15thcentury,themigrationofEuropeanstotheAmericas,andtheirimportationofAfricansasslaves,hasledtocenturiesofconflictandadjustmentbetweenOldandNewWorldsocieties.EuropeanscreatedmostoftheearlywrittenhistoricalrecordaboutNativeAmericansafterthecolonists'immigrationtotheAmericas.[3]ManyNativeAmericanslivedashunter-gatherersocietiesandtoldtheirhistoriesbyoraltraditions.Inmanygroups,womencarriedoutsophisticatedcultivationofnumerousvarietiesofstaplecrops:

maize,beansandsquash.Theindigenouscultureswerequitedifferentfromthoseoftheagrarian,proto-industrial,mostlyChristianimmigrantsfromwesternEurasia.ManyNativecultureswerematrilineal;thepeopleoccupiedlandsforuseoftheentirecommunity,forhuntingoragriculture.Europeanshadpatriarchalculturesandhaddevelopedconceptsofindividualpropertyrightsinlandthatwereextremelydifferent.

ThedifferencesinculturebetweentheestablishednativeAmericansandimmigrantEuropeans,aswellasshiftingalliancesamongdifferentnationsofeachculturethroughthecenturies,causedextensivepoliticaltension,ethnicviolenceandsocialdisruption.TheAmericanIndianssufferedhighfatalitiesfromthecontactwithinfectiousEurasiandiseases,towhichtheyhadnoacquiredimmunity.EpidemicsafterEuropeancontactcausedthegreatestlossoflifeforindigenouspopulations.Estimatesofthepre-ColumbianpopulationofwhattodayconstitutestheU.S.varysignificantly,rangingfrom1millionto18million.[4][5]

AfterthecoloniesrevoltedagainstGreatBritainandestablishedtheUnitedStatesofAmerica,PresidentGeorgeWashingtonandHenryKnoxconceivedoftheideaof"civilizing"NativeAmericansinpreparationforassimilationasUnitedStatescitizens.[6][7][8][9][10]Assimilation（whethervoluntaryaswiththeChoctaw,[11][12]orforced）becameaconsistentpolicythroughAmericanadministrations.Duringthe19thcentury,theideologyofManifestdestinybecameintegraltotheAmericannationalistmovement.ExpansionofEuropean-AmericanpopulationstothewestaftertheAmericanRevolutionresultedinincreasingpressureonNativeAmericanlands,warfarebetweenthegroups,andrisingtensions.In1830,theU.S.CongresspassedtheIndianRemovalAct,authorizingthegovernmenttorelocatemostNativeAmericansoftheDeepSouthfromtheirhomelandseastoftheMississippiRivertotheWest,toaccommodateEuropean-AmericanexpansionfromthecoastalUnitedStates.Governmentofficialsthoughtthatbydecreasingtheconflictbetweenthegroups,theycouldhelptheIndianssurvive.AmericanIndianshavecontinuedtolivethroughouttheSouth.Theyhaveorganizedandbeenrecognizedastribessincethelate20thcenturybyseveralstatesand,insomecases,bythefederalgovernment.

ThefirstEuropeanAmericanstoencounterthewesterntribesweregenerallyfurtradersandtrappers.TherewerealsoJesuitmissionariesactiveintheNorthernTier.AsUnitedStatesexpansionreachedintotheAmericanWest,settlerandminermigrantscameintoincreasingconflictwiththeGreatPlainstribes.Thesewerecomplexnomadicculturesbasedonusinghorsesandtravelingseasonallytohuntbison.TheycarriedoutstrongresistancetoUnitedStatesincursionsinthedecadesaftertheAmericanCivilWar,inaseriesof"IndianWars",whichwerefrequentupuntilthe1890s.Thecomingofthetranscontinentalrailroadincreasedpressuresonthewesterntribes.Overtime,theU.S.forcedaseriesoftreatiesandlandcessionsbythetribes,andestablishedreservationsfortheminmanywesternstates.U.S.agentsencouragedNativeAmericanstoadoptEuropean-stylefarmingandsimilarpursuits,butthereservationlandswereoftentoopooranddrytosupportsuchuses.

ContemporaryNativeAmericanshaveauniquerelationshipwiththeUnitedStatesbecausetheymaybemembersofnations,tribes,orbandsofNativeAmericanswhohavesovereigntyorindependencefromthegovernmentoftheUnitedStates.Sincethelate1960s,AmericanIndianactivismhasledtothebuildingofculturalinfrastructureandwiderrecognitionoftheiruniqueidentitiesandcontributionsthroughoutUnitedStatessociety:

theyhavefoundedindependentnewspapers,communityschools,tribalcolleges,andtribalmuseumsandlanguageprograms;academicinstitutionsacrossthecountryhavecreatedNativeAmericanstudiesprograms;nationalandstatemuseumshavebeenfoundedtorecognizeAmericanIndians'historicandcurrentcontributions.AmericanIndianauthorshavebeenincreasinglypublished（withthevastmajoritywritinginthecoloniallanguage,English）;otherAmericanIndiansworkashistoriansandinawidevarietyofoccupations.Traditionalandcontemporaryartistsandcraftsmenexpresstheiridentities.Culturalactivismhasledtoanexpansionofeffortstoteachandpreserveindigenouslanguagesforyoungergenerations.Theirsocietiesandculturesflourishwithinalargerpopulationofdescendantsofimmigrants（bothvoluntaryandinvoluntary）:

African,Asian,MiddleEastern,andEuropeanpeoples.Atonetime,theUSrequiredNativeAmericanstogiveuptribalmembershipinordertobeacceptedascitizens.Thispolicychangedandin1924,NativeAmericanswhowerenotalreadyU.S.citizensweregrantedcitizenshipbyCongress.

Civilrightsmovement

Thecivilrightsmovementwasaw