Unit 11 Input and interaction.docx

Unit 11 Input and interaction.docx

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Unit11Inputandinteraction

Unit11Input

--fromperspectiveofinteraction

（1）

Pre-questions

1.Whatdoesinputmean?

2.Whatarethemajorviewsofinput?

3.WhatistheuseofinputinSLA?

4.Howdoesinputinteractwithoutput?

5.WhateffectsdoesMotheresehaveonL2acquisition?

6.WhateffectsdoesforeignertalkhaveonL2acquisition?

15.1Definition

Inpreviousunits,L2learnerdifferencesinlearningaL2werepresented.AllofthedifferenceshastodowithinputoftheL2.

Definition:

Thetargetlanguagedatainspokenorwrittenformproducedbynativespeakersofthatlanguageorbyusersofthatlanguageasnon-nativespeakersorbyfellowlearnersofthatlanguage,whichisexposedtothelearner.

Thisdefinitionmanifests3points:

（1）“input”isthetargetlanguagethatisthelanguagelearnerhearsorreads,

（2）thetargetlanguagearrivesatthelearnereitherinspokenformorwrittenform,orbothinspokenandwrittenform,（3）thattargetlanguageisfromnativespeakersofthatlanguage,orusersofthatlanguageasnon-nativespeakerssuchasteachersofthetargetlanguageorotherfluentusersofthetargetlanguage,orevenpeerlearnersofthattargetlanguage,and（4）inferrably,thetargetlanguageexposedtothelearnerisbymeansofface-to-facepersonalcontact,byspeakerspresentasrealformofcommunicationsuchaslecture,orbymediasuchasTVprogram,Videoviewing,broadcasting.

Inputinvolvestwoendsofthelanguagedataflow,thequalityandquantityofinput.Thetwoendsarethelearnerandthesourcewherethelanguagedataissent—aperson,amediumofanykinds.Thequalityconcernscorrectnessandcompleteness,andquantityconcernshowmuchandhowoftenthedataissent.Theinputisseenatfirstasoutsidethelearnerandmayoccurindifferentsituations.Sofar,therearedifferentviewsabouttheiuput:

thebehaviorist,thenativist,andtheinteractionistviews.

15.2Threeviewsoninputinlanguageacquisition

ItgoeswithoutsayingthatinorderforSLAtotakeplace,theremustbe

（1）someL2datamadeavailabletothelearnerasinputand

（2）asetofinternallearnermechanismstoaccountforhowtheL2dataareprocessed.

Ontheonehanditispossibletoconceiveofthelearneras'alanguage-producingmachine'whoautomaticallyandeffortlesslylearnsaL2,aslongashegetstherightinputdata.Ontheotherhand,thelearnercanbeseenas'agrandinitiator';Inotherwords,hehastheinnateabilitiesneededtodiscovertheL2exposedtohim,nomatterhowlittletheL2datahehas.

15.2.1Behavioristview

BehavioristaccountsofSLAviewthelearneras‘alanguage-producingmachine'.Thelinguisticenvironmentisseenasthecrucialdeterminingfactor.Inthismodeloflearning,inputcomprisesthelanguagemadeavailabletothelearnerintheformofstimuliandalsothatwhichoccursasfeedback.Inthecaseoftheformer,thelearner'sinterlocutormodelsspecificformsandpatternswhichareinternalizedbythelearnerimitatingthem.

ThustheavailabilityofsuitablestimuliisanimportantdeterminingfactorinSLA.Behavioristtheoriesemphasizetheneedtoregulatethestimulibygradingtheinputintoaseriesofsteps,sothateachstepconstitutestherightlevelofdifficultyforthelevelthatthelearnerhasreached.

Feedbackservestwopurposes.ItindicateswhentheL2utterancesproducedbythelearnerarecorrectandsoreinforcesthem,anditalsoindicateswhentheutterancesareillformedbycorrectingthem.Theregulationofthestimuliandtheprovisionoffeedbackshapethelearningthattakesplaceandleadtotheformationofhabits.

15.2.2Nativistview

NativistaccountsofSLAviewthelearneras'agrandinitiator'.Exposuretolanguagecannotaccountsatisfactorilyforacquisition.Inputisseenmerelyasatriggerwhichactivatestheinternalmechanisms.Chomsky（1965）arguedthattheimperfectnatureofthemother'sspeechinputinfirstlanguageacquisitionmadeitunlikelythatanychildcouldsuccessfullyinternalizetherulesystemofalanguageifheworkedonthisalone.'Degenerate'（蜕化）inputwasinadequateforacquisition.

Asaresultofthepre-eminenceofnativistviewsinthe1960sandearly1970s,researchfocusedontheoutputofL2learners,inparticulartheerrorstheymanifestedinspeechandwriting.Thiswasbecauseitwasbelievedthattheoutputwouldrevealthenatureofthelearningstrategiesinvolved.AsLarsen-Freeman（1983a:

88）observes:

...researchersalltoooftenhaveconfinedthescopeoftheirstudiestoexaminingthelearner'slinguisticproduct,thusoverlookinganimportantsource（i.e.input）ofinformationwhichcouldproveelucidating（阐明，解释）inachievingabetterunderstandingoftheacquisitionprocess.

Thisistosaythatnativistviewsprecluded（排除）thepossibilitythatatleastsomeaspectsofthelearner'soutputcouldbeexplainedintermsofthecharacteristicsoftheinput.

Thus,whereasabehavioristviewoflanguageacquisitionseekstoexplainprogresspurelyintermsofwhathappensoutsidethelearner,thenativistviewemphasizeslearner-internalfactors.

15.2.3Interactionistview

Theinteractionhypothesis,proposedbySLAexpertMichaelLong,asthethirdviewhere,istenable[（学说等）站得住脚的,经得起批判的].Ittreatstheacquisitionoflanguageastheresultofaninteractionbetweenthelearner'smentalabilitiesandthelinguisticenvironment.Thelearner'sprocessingmechanismsbothdetermineandaredeterminedbythenatureoftheinput.Thequalityoftheinputaffectsandisaffectedbythenatureoftheinternalmechanisms.Theinteractionbetweenexternalandinternalfactorsismanifestintheactualverbalinteractionsinwhichthelearnerandhisinterlocutorparticipate.Itfollowsfromthisinteractionistviewoflanguageacquisitionthattheimportantdataarenotjusttheutterancesproducedbythelearner,butthediscoursewhichlearnerandcaretakerjointlyconstruct.

Discussion

Threedifferentviewsregardingtheroleofinputinlanguagedevelopmenthavebeendiscussed.Thebehavioristviewemphasizestheimportanceofthelinguisticenvironment,whichistreatedintermsofstimuliandfeedback.Thenativistviewminimizestheroleoftheinputandexplainslanguagedevelopmentprimarilyintermsofthelearner'sinternalprocessingmechanisms.Theinteractionistviewseeslanguagedevelopmentastheresultbothofinputfactorsandofinnatemechanisms:

Languageacquisitionderivesfromthecollaborativeeffortsofthelearnerandhisinterlocutorsandinvolvesadynamicinterplaybetweenexternalandinternalfactors.

ThediscussionoftheroleofthelinguisticenvironmentinSLAisthemainpurposeofthisunit.Itisconductedlargelywithintheinteractionistframework.However,manyoftheearlystudiesofinputandinteractionconcernedtheacquisitionofanL1ratherthananL2.

15.3Natureofinput（3kinds）

Thenatureofinputisdeterminedbyitsnature

1.Babytalk（motherese,care-takerspeech,child-directedspeech）Mothers,otherparentsoradults,othercare-takersmakeadjustmentstothetheirspeechwhentheyspeaktoveryyoungchildren.

2.Foreignertalk（speechdirectedtowardslinguisticallydefiantnon-nativespeakers）.

Nativespeakersmakeadjustmentstotheirspeechwhentheyspeaktolinguisticallydeficientinterlocutors（Ferguson,1971）.

3.Teachertalk

IntheL2classroom,L2teachersmakethespeechslowerandsimplerinorderfortheL2learnerstofollowintelligibly,easilyandclearly.

15.4'Motherese'andL1acquisition

Definition

Motheresereferstoaspecialuseoflanguagewithwhichthemothertunesthepitch,intonation,rhythmtotheperceptivesensitivityofthechild（Sachs,1997）.Thisdefinitionissubstantiatedbyfurtherknowledge.Itmeansboththelanguagewhichisaddressedtothechildandthewaymotherusesthelanguage.Thelanguagethemotherusestothechildissimpleinvocabularyandstructure.Thestyleorwayofusingthelanguageisslow,pitchy,andemotional.

Thenature

1）Themother'sspeechwas

（1）remarkablywellformed,

（2）containingfewungrammaticalutterancesorsentencefragments.

2）Thisspeechwascharacterizedbyanumberofformal

adjustmentsincomparisontospeechusedinadult-adultconversations:

（1）alowermeanlengthofutterance,

（2）theuseofsentenceswithalimitedrangeofgrammaticalrelations,（3）fewsubordinateandco-ordinateconstructions,（4）moresimplesentences,theoccurrenceoftutorialquestions（i.e.questionstowhichthemotheralreadyknowstheanswer）,and,（5）overall,ahighlevelofredundancy,（6）adjustmentsinpronunciation（Snow,1976）.Motherstunethepitch,intonation,andrhythmtothe

perceptivesensitivityofthechild（Sachs,1977）.

Thefunctions

Ferguson（1977）suggeststhatthereare4mainfunctions:

（1）anaidtocommunication,

（2）anaidtolanguageteaching,

（3）asocializationfunctionistheformer,however,thatmotivatesmotherese,

（4）anaid,inferredfromthethesethreefunctions,tofacilitatingthechild’scomprehension.

Incommunicatingwiththeirchildren,themother

（1）simplifiesherspeechinordertofacilitatetheexchangeofmeanings,payslittleattentiontotheformalcorrectnessoftheirchildren'sspeech,butinsteadattendtothesocialappropriatenessoftheirutterances.Brown（1977）describestheprimarymotivationas'tocommunicate,tounderstandandtobeunderstood,tokeeptwomindsfocusedonthesametopic'.Thusifmotheresealsoservestoteachlanguageandtosocializethechildintothecultureoftheparents,itdoessoonlyindirectlyasoffshootsoftheattempttocommunicate.

15.4.4Thebasisofadjustmentsmadebymothers

Howmothersdeterminethenatureandtheextentofthe