语言学第三章笔记和习题Word版.docx

语言学第三章笔记和习题Word版.docx

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语言学第三章笔记和习题Word版

Chapter3Morphology

⏹Lexiconisthecollectionofallthewordsofalanguage.Itissynonymouswith“vocabulary”.

Wordsarethefocusofthestudyoflexicon,sotheemphasisofthischapterfallsuponwords,i.e.,theanalysisandcreationofwords.

Linguistsdefinethewordasthesmallestfreeformfoundinlanguage.Thefeaturesofword

Wordismeaningful;wordisagrammaticalunit;wordcanbeusedindependently;wordisrelativelystableanduninterruptible.

⏹Morphologyreferstothestudyoftheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.

⏹Thetotalnumberofwordsstoredinthebrainiscalledthelexicon.

⏹Wordsarethesmallestfreeunitsoflanguagethatunitesoundswithmeaning.

Morphologyisabranchoflinguistics,whereaslexiconisacomponentoflanguageinsteadofabranchoflinguistics.

Openclasswordandclosedclassword

⏹Openclasswords----contentwordsofalanguagetowhichwecanregularlyaddnewwords,suchasnouns,adjectives,verbsandadverbs,e.g.beatnik（amemberoftheBeatGeneration）,hacker,email,internet,“做秀，时装秀…”inChinese.

⏹Closedclasswords----grammaticalorfunctionalwords,suchasconjunction,articles,prepositionandpronouns.

⏹Morpheme--theminimalunitofmeaning.Thesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguageiscalledamorpheme.

---Wordsarecomposedofmorphemes.Wordsmayconsistofonemorphemeormoremorphemes,e.g.

⏹1-morphemeboy,desire

⏹2-morphemeboy+ish,desir（e）+ble

⏹3-morphemeboy+ish+ness,desir（e）+bl（e）+ity

⏹4-morphemegentle+man+li+ness,un+desir（e）+abl（e）+ity

⏹5-morphemeun+gentle+man+li+ness

⏹7-morphemeanti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism

⏹Morph:

whenpeoplewishtodistinguishthesoundofamorphemefromtheentiremorpheme,theymaysuedtheterm.Itisthephoneticrealizationofamorpheme

⏹Allomorph:

Amorphememayberepresentedbydifferentforms,calledallomorphs.Itisthephoneticvariantofamorpheme.

⏹Somemorphemeshaveasingleforminallcontexts,suchas“dog,bark,cat”,etc.Inotherinstances,theremaybesomevariation,thatis,amorphememayhavealternateshapesorphoneticforms.Theyaresaidtobetheallomorphsofthemorpheme,thepluralmorphememayberepresentedby:

⏹map----maps[s]

⏹dog----dogs[z]

⏹watch----watches[iz]

⏹mouse----mice[ai]

⏹ox----oxen[n]

⏹tooth----teeth

⏹sheep----sheep

⏹Eachoftheunderlinedpartiscalledanallomorphofpluralmorpheme.

⏹

Affix

⏹Prefix----morphemesthatoccuronlybeforeothers,e.g.

un-,dis,anti-,ir-,etc.

⏹Suffix----morphemesthatoccuronlyafterothers,e.g.

-ful,-er,-ish,-ness,-able,-tive,tion,etc.

Root:

Therootconstitutesthecoreofthewordandcarriesthemajorcomponentofitsmeaning.Arootisthebaseformofawordthatcannotfurtherbeanalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.Arootmaybefreeorbound（suchasmit,tain,cur,ceive）.Anaffixisnaturallybound.

Freemorpheme&boundmorpheme

⏹Freemorpheme----isonethatmayconstituteaword（freeform）byitself,suchasbed,tree,sing,dance,etc.

⏹Boundmorpheme----isonethatmayappearwithatleastoneothermorpheme.Theycannotstandbythemselves,suchas“-s”in“dogs”,“al”in“national”,“dis-”in“disclose”,“ed”in“recorded”,etc.

⏹Somemorphemesconstitutewordsbythemselves.Thesemorphemesarecalledfreemorphemes.

⏹Othermorphemesareneverusedindependentlyinspeechandwriting.Theyarealwaysattachedtofreemorphemestoformnewwords.Thesemorphemesarecalledboundmorphemes.

⏹Thedistinctionbetweenafreemorphemesandaboundmorphemeiswhetheritcanbeusedindependentlyinspeechorwriting.

⏹Freemorphemesaretherootsofwords,whileboundmorphemesaretheaffixes（prefixesandsuffixes）.

Derivationalmorpheme&inflectionalmorpheme

⏹Derivationalmorphemes----themorphemeswhichchangethecategory,orgrammaticalclassofwords,e.g.modern---modernize,length---lengthen,fool---foolish,etc.

⏹Inflectionalmorphemes----themorphemeswhichareforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmarkers,signifyingsuchconceptsastense,number,caseandsoon;theyneverchangetheirsyntacticcategory,neveraddanylexicalmeaning,e.g.

a）number:

tablesapplescars

b）person,finitenessandaspect:

talk/talks/talking/talked

c）case:

John/John’s

⏹InflectionalmorphemesinmodernEnglishindicatecaseandnumberofnouns,tenseandaspectofverbs,anddegreeofadjectivesandadverbs.

⏹Derivationalmorphemesareboundmorphemesaddedtoexistingformstoconstructnewwords.

◆Englishaffixesaredividedintoprefixesandsuffixes.

◆Somelanguageshaveinfixes,boundmorphemeswhichareinsertedintoothermorphemes.

àDerivationalmorphemes----àaffix（suffix,infix,prefix）+root

àInflectionalmorphemesà11

11typesofinflectionalmorphemesinEnglish

Noun+-’s,-s/es[possessive;plural]Verb+-s/es,-ing,-ed,-ed/-en[3rdpersonsingular;presentparticiple;pasttense,pastparticiple]Adj+-er,-est[comparative;superlative]

Inflectionalmorphemesneverchangethegrammaticalcategoryofaword

Inflectionalmorphemesinfluencethewholecategory;

Derivationalmorphemesareopposite

Order:

root（stem）+derivational+inflectional

●Conclusion:

classificationofmorphemes

⏹Morphemes

◆Freemorphemes

◆Boundmorphemes

●Inflexional

●Derivational:

affixes

⏹Prefixes

⏹Suffixes

Morphologicalrules

⏹Therulesthatgoverntheformationofwords,e.g.the“un-+----”rule.

unfairunthinkableunacceptable…

⏹Compoundingisanotherwaytoformnewwords,e.g.

landladyrainbowundertake…

◆Theprocessofputtingaffixestoexistingformstocreatenewwordsiscalledderivation.Wordsthusformedarecalledderivatives.

Compounds

⏹Nouncompounds

daybreak（N+V）playboy（V+N）haircut（N+V）

callgirl（V+N）windmill（N+N）

⏹Verbcompounds

brainwash（N+V）lipread（N+V）babysit（N+V）

⏹Adjectivecompounds

maneating（N+Ving）heartfelt（N+Ved）

dutyfree（N+adj.）

⏹Prepositioncompounds

into（P+P）

throughout（P+P）

Somepointsaboutcompounds

⏹Whenthetwowordsareinthesamegrammaticalcategory,thecompoundwillbeinthiscategory,e.g.postbox,landlady,icy-cold,blue-black…

⏹Whenthetwowordsfallintodifferentcategories,theclassofthesecondorfinalwordwillbethegrammaticalcategoryofthecompound,e.g.head-strong,pickpocket…

⏹Compoundshavedifferentstresspatternsfromthenon-compoundedwordsequence,e.g.redcoat,greenhouse…

⏹Themeaningofacompoundisnotalwaysthesumofthemeaningsofitsparts.

●Formationofnewwords

1.Inflection:

itisthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspectandcase.

2.Derivation

◆Derivationformsawordbyaddinganaffixtoafreemorpheme.

◆Sincederivationcanapplymorethanonce,itispossibletocreateaderivedwordwithanumberofaffixes.Forexample,ifweaddaffixestothewordfriend,wecanformbefriend,friendly,unfriendly,friendliness,unfriendliness,etc.Thisprocessofaddingmorethanoneaffixtoafreemorphemeistermedcomplexderivation.

◆Derivationisalsoconstrainedbyphonologicalfactors.

◆SomeEnglishsuffixesalsochangethewordstress.

3.Compounding

◆Compoundingisanothercommonwaytoformwords.Itisthecombinationoffreemorphemes.

◆ThemajorityofEnglishcompoundsarethecombinationofwordsfromthethreeclasses–nouns,verbsandadjectives–andfallintothethreeclasses.

◆Incompounds,therightmostmorphemedeterminesthepartofspeechoftheword.

◆Themeaningofcompoundsisnotalwaysthesumofmeaningofthecomponents.

4.Conversion（invention）

◆Conversionistheprocessputtinganexistingwordofoneclassintoanotherclass.

◆Conversionisusuallyfoundinwordscontainingonemorpheme.

5.Clipping（abbreviations）front,back,frontandback

◆Clippingisaprocessthatshortensapolysyllabicwordbydeletingoneormoresyllables.

◆ClippedwordsareinitiallyusedinspokenEnglishoninformaloccasions.

◆Someclippedwordshavebecomewidelyaccepted,andareusedeveninformalstyles.Forexample,thewordsbus（omnibus）,vet（veterinarian）,gym（gymnasium）,fridge（refrigerator）andfax（facsimile）arerarelyusedintheircompleteform.

6.Blending

◆Blendingisaprocessthatcreatesnewwordsbyputtingtogethernon-morphemicpartsofexistingwords.Forexample,

smog（smoke+frog）,brunch（amealinthemiddleofmorning,replacingbothbreakfastandlunch）,motel（motor+hotel）.Thereisalsoaninterestingwordinthetextbookforjuniormiddleschoolstudents–“plike”（akindofmachinethatislikebothaplaneandabike）.

7.Back-formation

◆Back-formationistheprocessthatcreatesanewwordbydroppingarealorsupposedsuffix.Forexample,thewordteleviseisback-formedfromtelevision.Originally,thewordtelevisionisformedbyputtingtheprefixtele-（far）totherootvision（viewing）.Atthesametime,thereisasuffix–sioninEnglishindicatingnouns.Thenpeopleconsiderthe–sioninthewordtelevisionasthatsuffixanddropittoformtheverbtelevise.

8.Acronyms

◆Acronymsareformedbyputtingtogethertheinitiallettersofallwordsinaphraseortitle.

◆Acronymscanbereadasawordandareusuallylongerthanabbreviations,whicharereadletterbyletter.

◆Thistypeofwordformationiscommoninnamesoforganizationsandscientificterminology.

9.Eponyms

◆Eponymsarewordsthatoriginatefrompropernamesofindividualsorplaces.Forexample,thewordsandwichisacommonnounoriginatingfromthefourthEarlofSandwich,whoputhisfoodbetweentwoslicesofbreadsothathecouldeatwhilegambling.

10.Coinage

◆Coinageisaprocessofinventingwordsnotbasedonexistingmorphemes.

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