theory 4Deconstruction.docx

theory 4Deconstruction.docx

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theory4Deconstruction

Deconstruction

Ofallthetheoriesoutlinedinthisguide,Deconstructionposesthemostproblemsfortheuninitiatedreader.ThetranslationsfromtheFrenchare,again,difficultandtheideasdifficulttograsp.WewillthereforeprovideadetailedanalysisofthebasictheoriesandcarryoutanewreadingofoneofthekeyessaysofDeconstructivethought.Deconstructionisapost-structuralistTheory,basedlargelybutnotexclusivelyonthewritingsoftheParis-basedJacquesDerrida.ItisinthefirstinstanceaphilosophicalTheoryandaTheorydirectedtowardsthe（re-）readingofphilosophicalwritings.Itsimpactonliterature,mediatedinNorthAmericalargelythroughtheinfluencesoftheoristsatYaleUniversity,isbasedinpartonthefactthatdeconstructionseesallwritingasacomplexhistorical,culturalprocessrootedintherelationsoftextstoeachotherandintheinstitutionsandconventionsofwriting,inpartonthesophisticationandintensityofitssensethathumanknowledgeisnotascontrollableorascogentasWesternthoughtwouldhaveitandthatlanguageoperatesinsubtleandoftencontradictoryways,sothatcertaintywillalwayseludeus.

Reality

ItisnecessarytounderstandDeconstructiveideasonthenatureofreality.Realityasweunderstanditisconstructedofcertaindeepstructuralprinciplesororganizationswhichmaybeconfigureddifferentlyonthelevelofexperiencedlife,aswebothoperateandinterpretthemdifferently.Language,forinstance,iscomposedofbasicresources（langue）fromwhichindividualinstancesofitsusearedrawn（parole）;culturesareformedthroughbasicrelationsofeconomicproduction（theMarxistconceptionofthe'base'）,butthesemayappeardifferentlyascultures（economies,intheeconomicandmoregeneralsense）configuretheirideasandarrangements（the'superstructure'）.Theideaisthattherearebasicstructureswhichareoperationalisedaccordingtocertaintransformativerulesinrelationtotheparticularsofspecificsituations.

Thereisnounmediatedknowledgeof'reality':

knowledgeissymbolic;whatwe'know'aresigns;signsgaintheirmeaningfromtheirdistinctionfromothersigns.Thereforethereisnoknowledgeof'reality',butonlyofsymbolized,constructedexperience.Our'knowingofourexperience'isitselfthenmediatedknowing,whichistheonlythingknowingcanbe.Thereisno'pure'knowledgeofrealityexcept,astheearlytheoristofsemioticsCharlesSandersPiercesuggests,ataninstantaneousandinarticulablelevel:

onecan,Piercesays,experience,butnotknow,reality-in-itself.Thisisnottosaythatthisexperienceoftherealisnotreal;itis:

weliveinarealworld.Butweliveparticularlyinourcodification,oursystemofsigns.Ifwecannottranslateanyexperienceintosymbolicformthenwecannot'know'itinawaythatisusefultous;ifwedoknow,thenourknowledgeisonlyknowledgethroughourcodesandoursignifyingsystems-thatis,mediatedknowledge.（Aswhenwemightexperienceanearthquakewithoutimmediatelyknowingwhatitis,andsoforamomentexperienceonlysomethinglikedisorientedpanic）.

Alltextsaremediated（areonlytheprocessofmediation）,inmanyways:

theyaremediatedbylanguage,theyaremediatedbyculturalsystems,includingideologiesandsymbols,theyaremediatedbytheconventionsofgenres,theyaremediatedbytheworldofintertextualitywhichistextuality'sonlytruehome,theyaremediatedbythestructureofideasandpracticeswhichwecallreading（thereisno'purereading',thereisonlyreadingaccordingtosometradition,forsomepurpose）.Textsaremediatedintheirconstruction,intheircommunication,andintheirreception.Textscannot,bydefinition,simplytransferanauthor'sideas.Ourmediatedknowledgeworksasallsignssystemswork,notbyidentificationbutbydifferencesandthroughcodes

DeconstructionAssumptions

Indeconstruction,thebasicstructuralistprincipleofdifferenceislocatedontologicallyaswellassemiotically:

attheverypointofbeingnessofeverythingthereisdifference-or"différance"-becauseonlythroughdifféranceisonethingnotanotherthinginstead.Différancecomesbeforebeing.Similarly,atracecomesbeforethepresenceofathing（becauseanythingwhichisisitselfbyvirtueofnotbeingsomethingelse:

bydiffering;andthatwhichitdiffersfromremainsasatrace,thatwhoseabsenceisnecessaryforittobe）.Sotoowritingprecedesspeech-asystemofdifferencesprecedesanylocationofmeaninginarticulation.

Deconstruction,asdootherpost-structuraltheories,declinesthestructuralistassumptionthatstructuralprinciplesareessences-thatthereareuniversalstructuralprinciplesoflanguagewhichexist'before'theincidenceoflanguage.（Theemphasisontheconcrete,historicalandcontingentinoppositiontotheeternalitiesofessencerevealsoneofdeconstruction'sfiliationswithexistentialism.）All'principles'ofexistence（i.e.,ofexperience）arehistoricallysituatedandarestructuredbytheinterplayofindividualexperienceandinstitutionalforce,throughthelanguage,symbols,environment,exclusionsandoppositionsofthemoment（andofthepreviousmomentsthroughwhichthisoneisconstructed）.Structuresarehistorical,temporary,contingent,operatingthroughdifferentiationanddisplacement.

Thereisnooutsideofthetext;everythingthatwecanknowistext,thatis,isconstructedofsignsinrelationship.Thisclaimdoesnotmeanthatthereisnothingoutsideoflanguage:

theclaimreferstotherealmofhumanknowledge,nottotherealmofconcreteexistence（elusiveasthatmightbe）.Deconstructiondoesnotdenytheexistenceofanindependent,physicalworld.Alltextsareconstitutedbydifferencefromothertexts（thereforesimilaritytothem）.Anytextincludesthatwhichitexcludes,andexistsinitsdifferencesfrom/filiationswithothertexts.Oppositesarealreadyunited;theycannotbeoppositesotherwise.Norcantheybeaunity,andbethemselves.Theyarethealternatingimprintofoneanother.Thereisnonihilismwithoutlogocentrism,nologocentrismwithoutnihilism,nopresencewithoutabsence,noabsencewithoutpresence,andsoforth.Inherentinlanguageitselfisdifferenceanddeferral;itisimpossibleforlanguagetobeidenticalwithitsreferents.Awordoranyothersigncanonlymobilizetheplayofthefieldsofsignsfromwhichitisdistinguished,andfromwhichitisofnecessityremoved.Inherentinlanguagealsoisthecontestbetweengrammarandrhetoric.Grammaristhesyntagmaticprotocol,meaningascreatedbyplacement;rhetoricistheintertextualsystemofsignswhichmakeswhatthegrammarmeans,meansomethingelse（ironyandmetaphorareprincipalexamples）.Grammaticalandrhetoricalmeaningcannotbeidentical,andonemaywellnotbeabletoassignapriorityof'meaning'.

Inasense,deconstructionisprofoundlyhistorical:

itseestemporalityasintrinsictomeaning,inthatmeaningcanonlybestructuredagainstthatwhichisbeforeit,whichisstructuredagainstthatwhichisbeforethat.Meaningisthatwhichdiffers,andwhichdefers.Theclaimisnotthatthereisnomeaning--thatisamisunderstandingofdeconstruction:

theclaimisthatwhatwetaketobemeaningisashiftingfieldofrelationsinwhichthereisnostablepoint,inwhichdynamicopposingmeaningsmaybepresentsimultaneously,inwhichthemeaningistextuallymodulatedinainterweavingplayoftexts.Meaningcirculates,itisalwaysmeaningbydifference,bybeingother.Themeaning-through-differencecreates/drawson'traces'or'filiations',themselvesinsomesenseshistorical.Deconstructionisalsohistoricalinsofaranditfunctionsetymologically,turningtotheroot,oftenmetaphorical,meaningsofwordsforanunderstandingofhowtheyfunctionwithinthewebofdifferentiationwhichspansthechasmofthenon-humanoverwhichweconstantlylive.

Asdeconstructionworkson（inbothsensesof'workson'）thewebofdifferentiationwhichspansthechasmofthenon-humanoverwhichweconstantlylive,itisintrinsicallyanddeeplyhumanandhumane.Itisaffirmativeofthemultiplicity,theparadoxes,therichnessandvibrancy,ofourlifeassignifyingbeings.Ifitseemstodenyaffirmation,itisbecauseitknowsthataffirmationisalways,intimatelyandcompellingly,itself,onlyinthepresenceofandbyvirtueofnegation.Tofullylivewemustembraceourdeaths.

IfdeconstructionseemstoopposeHumanism,itisbecauseHumanismoperatesbysubstitutingtheconcept'man'fortheconcept'God'（or'order','nature','Truth','logos',etc.）andsoplacing'man'astheunproblematicgroundofmeaningfulnessforhumanlife.Itshouldbeclear,however,that'man'isthena

hypothesizedcentre,substitutingforanotherhypothesizedcentre,inthehistoryofmetaphysics.Deconstructionwantstoclarifytheinstabilityuponwhichsuchaconceptisgrounded.

Onecanandindeedmustworkwithideassuchas'centre','man','truth',butmustworkwiththemknowingtheirinstability;todosois,indeconstructiveterms,toplacethem"undererasure."Tosignifythisgraphically,usethestrikethroughoptiononyourcomputer'swordprocessor.

Deconstructivereadingcanbeappliedtoanytext.ItisaTheoryofreading,notaTheoryofliterature.Derridagenerallydeconstructsphilosophicalwriting,showingthemetaphysicalcontradictionsandthehistoricityofwritingwhichlaysclaimtotheabsolute.

'Literature'isaformofwritingclearlyopentodeconstructivereading,asitreliessoheavilyonthemultiplemeaningsofwords:

onexclusions,onsubstitutions,onintertextuality,onfiliationsamongmeaningsandsigns,ont