胡壮麟《语言学教程》修订版笔记+练习.docx

1、胡壮麟语言学教程修订版笔记+练习Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why study language? 1. Language is very essential to human beings. 2. In language there are many things we should know. 3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communicatio

2、n. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication. 1.3.1 ArbitrarinessArbitrariness refers to

3、 the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings. 1.3.2 DualityDuality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own pri

4、nciples of organization. 1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the poss

5、ibility of creating endless sentences. 1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.1.4 Origin of language 1. The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people

6、imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that. 2. The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language. 3. The “yo-he-ho” theoryAs pri

7、mitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions: 1. Referential: to convey message and information; 2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its

8、 own sake; 3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions; 4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties; 5. Phatic: to establish communion with others; 6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafuncti

9、ons of language. It means that language has three metafunctions:1. Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer;2. Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personal relationships;3. Textual function: referri

10、ng to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken and written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 Informative The informative func

11、tion means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2 Interpersonal function The interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 Performative The performative function of language i

12、s primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive function The emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language beca

13、use it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.1.5.5 Phatic communion The phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable re

14、lationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational function The recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a babys babbling or a chanters chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual function The metalingual function means people can use language to ta

15、lk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the lang

16、uage of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics 1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. 1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and se

17、quencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. 1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaningmorphemes and word-formation processes. 1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the format

18、ion of sentences. 1.7.5 Semantics Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language. 1.7.6 Pragmatics Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal a

19、spect of language system. 1.8.1 PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example. 1.8.2 SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in la

20、nguage and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users. 1.8.3 Anthropological linguisticsAnthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community. 1.8.4 Computational linguisticsComputational linguistics is an interdisciplinary

21、field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics 1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of

22、 a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Dont say X.” is a prescriptive command;

23、 “People dont say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of lingui

24、stics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription. 1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussures diachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its hi

25、story. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeares time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless

26、the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development. 1.9.3 Langue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue a

27、nd parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e.

28、to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics. 1.9.4 Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language users underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concre

29、te situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speakers competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a sp

30、eakers performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomskys competence- performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussures langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social pr

31、oduct and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically. 1.9.5

32、Etic vs. emicThese two terms are still very vague to me. After I read Ji Daohongs book, I can understand them better, but because they are vaguely mentioned in Hus book, it seems very difficult for me to understand them fully. icywarmteaBeing etic means researchers making far too many, as well as behaviorally and inconsequential, differentiations, just as often the case with phonetics vs. phonemics analysis in linguistics proper.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one