韦晓亮Argument笔记.docx

1、韦晓亮Argument笔记 Argument写作 注：要把242个题目每一个题目都分析一遍 以免耽误考场时间（一） Argument的写作特点和整体结构给出一篇短文，30分钟内指出文章中主要的逻辑错误，并提出建议。外推类错误 过去比较好的未必会延续到将来充分必要条件错误 还有其他原因错误类比 让步式攻击Argument 193：Survey 调查类错误；因果关系错误；错误类比第一段：开头段 主要是归纳论点，说明论点有问题，存在逻辑漏洞，准备发起进攻。第二段和第三段甚至第四段：正文段 分类别去攻击各个逻辑错误第五段：结尾段 作者的结论似乎是合理的，但是通过论证，不是这样的。因此作者在作出决定之前

2、，应该还要考虑其他情况。（二） 如何写开头段C-E-F结构 conclusion结论 evidence证据 flaw缺陷模板 1 Merely based on (rely on) unfounded assumption and dubious (suspicious) evidence, the statement (the article, the author, the arguer) draws a conclusion that_. To substantiate (support) the conclusion, the arguer points out evidence th

3、at_. In addition, he indicates that_. Furthermore, he cites the result of a recent survey in support of his recommendation. (Furthermore, the author cites E3 as a typical example in support of his recommendation.) At first glance, the authors argument appears to be somewhat convincing, but further r

4、eflection (考虑) reveals that it omits some substantial concerns that should be addressed to substantiate the argument. In my point of view, this argument suffers from N logical flaws.模板 2 由于记得不准，就不写在下面了。 C和E不要照抄，把原文进行概述、提炼等改写 C最重要argument和issue不一样，argument要规范、规矩，而issue则要多样。找准c,概述e（三） 如何写正文段一、合理安排逻辑错误

5、的攻击顺序 a. 按照逻辑错误出现的顺序进行顺序式攻击； b. 按照逻辑错误的主次进行攻击； 如果文章的主要错误出现在调查，则先攻击之。 c. 按照逻辑体系进行让步式攻击（推荐这种，最合理） 按错误的演绎关系，如：A = B = C，则先攻击A，A不成立；即便A成立，攻击B，B不成立；假设即使A和B都成立，攻击C，C不成立。何况A、B都不成立。Argument 2：外推类错误 seven years ago;因果类错误 since then;错误类比注意：逐步让步二、各段首句1 这个文章存在的第一个关键性的问题是2 另外一个弱化了原文逻辑的点在于3 Before I come to my co

6、nclusion, it is necessary _. (暗示读者是最后一个了，启下)【具体没有记，回头再补充】（四） 如何写结尾段(虚拟语气)ETS：结尾和开头要有区别C-S结构 C：再次概括原文没有自圆其说的conclusion。S：suggestion。 模板：To sum up, this arguer fails to substantiate the claim that_, because the evidences cited in the analysis do not lend strong support to what the arguer maintains. To

7、 make the argument more convincing, the arguer would have to provide more information with regard to_ (点到为止). Additionally, he would have to demonstrate that_. Therefore, if the argument had included the given factors discussed above, it would have been more thorough and logically acceptable. (这里用虚拟

8、语气表示遗憾) （五） 各个逻辑错误的攻击方法和语言一、调查类逻辑错误（survey/study）题库中重中之重很多标志词见手写版笔记。攻击：样本的质量和数量；采样过程是否科学合理(1) Procedure过程A. Selective sample (片面性样本) 攻击点：样本选择不随机、不具代表性 攻击技巧：调查对象前一系列限定性定语或修饰词B. Quantity of the sample攻击点：样本数量少，即便有典型性也不能说明问题模板：Unless the surveyors sampled a sufficient number of _样本集_ and did so randoml

9、y across the entire spectrum, the survey results are not reliable to gauge/weigh/assess/value _调查目标_ generally/universally (评估什么的广泛性、一般性). The number of respondents/samples, in itself, does not ensure/guarantee/warrant representativeness (代表性). For example, if the sample included only _(某一方面), then

10、the results would no doubt suggest (此处不表示建议，因此不用虚拟语气，表示暗示)_. Or if grosses are considerable (可观的), _(1500,1200) would account for only a little percentage, which would render/lead to (导致) the results of the survey meaningless.正反逻辑：正逻辑：顺着原文的条件，得出原文的结论。例如：如果这个样本只包含了参加这个课程有效果的那部分学生，毫无疑问会得到这个课程有效的结果。反逻辑

11、：与原文相反的条件，得到相反的结论。例如：如果这个样本只包含了参加这个课程无效的那部分学生，很有可能结果就暗示了该课程的无效性。C. 回应者是否说了真话是个小错误，可以不攻击，即便要攻击，用一句话合并在QQ里面就可以。一般由于是否匿名、保密、利益。We are not informed whether the survey response anonymous and confidential, if they were not _.Argument 115D暗含性假设（我看还是不要攻击了）【3/113】Argument 115如：是满意还是非常不满意？也是一句话概括：We are not i

12、nformed whether the survey required the respondents to choose their proneness between alternative, if indeed, then the result might have distort the genuine 想法 of the respondent who might actually prefer A to B or C.(2) Result of the survey 调查结果类错误（一句话）A. Do the statistics make any meaningfulness 数据

13、是否有意义 数据无意义指的是数据和结论不相关。The statistic should be relating to the conclusion.Argument 14B. Are the statistics misleadingly vague 数据是否含糊标志词：all， many， a number of， most 绝对化数量 percentage proportion 相对比值注：绝对和相对缺一即要攻击，题库中没有任何一个题两个都有，所以肯定缺一。1）攻击“无相对比值”The argument tells us that many(a number of) _.However,

14、the speaker fails to indicate the percentage of_, so this evidence is far too vague to be meaningful.2)攻击“无绝对数值”The author fails to provide information regarding the absolute number of _.Argument 102 C. Respondents（这个词只要出现肯定回应者错误） 回应者错误（小错误）Argument 11The respondents must be statistically significan

15、t in number and representative of the overall_.(3) Who conducted the survey 谁做了这个调查标志词：主观代词cross-bencher 中立机构N nonaligned 中立的AThe surveyor must be cross-bencher/nonaligned. Argument 179(3) When was the survey conducted?在时间轴上，做调查的时间和通过调查得出结论的时间在时间上要足够的近。A threshold problem is that the editorial negle

16、cts to indicate how recently the survey was actually conducted. When samples are used to make general claims about a particular group, the samples should be close enough in time to the generalization (得出结论这个概括性行为). All we know in the editorial is that the survey was recently published. The less rece

17、nt the survey itself is, the less reliable the results are to indicate _current interest levels.Argument 36 (难题)调查类错误的写作词汇： 名词：survey, questionnaire, statistical study (统计研究), sample, specimen (样本的最文本化表述), sampling (采样的动作), quantity, quality, statistic (统计量), poll, absolute value, valid, validity, s

18、tatistical validity, range (范围), spectrum, scope 动词：select, choose, sample, investigate, examine, indicate, comprise ( vt. 直接加成分，用于表示样本有什么构成) 形容词vs.副词：valid, authentic (可信的), random, quantitative, statistical, typical, representative, characteristic, far-ranging (广泛的), comprehensive (综合的), expansive

19、 (广泛的，易扩张的), generally, universally二、充分必要条件类错误（Sufficient Evidence and Necessary Condition）（1）Sufficient Evidence充分条件标志词：once攻击点：A不充分导致B，B的发生还依赖于其他原因（C,D,E.）；Argument 170模板：a.The argument assumes too hastily that _ will necessarily result in the behavior that the argument predicts. Perhaps, _ . More

20、over, _.b.The fact that A is not sufficient for the prediction that B.（2）Necessary Condition 必要条件作者在原文中一般会指出：A的发生是唯一导致B发生的必要条件；攻击：没A的发生，如果有C D E. 任何一个到两个因素的发生也可以导致B的发生标志词：only, extreme.Argument 195（较难） 数据含糊 only.模板：The editors recommendation depends on the assumption that no factors other than big c

21、ity caused financial trouble. However, common sense informs me that this assumption is a poor one. A myriad of other factors, including prise_ , might be the cause of B. To be specific, _. Without ruling out these and other possible causes, the editor cannot justifiably conclude that only by small c

22、ity。_ can _解决financial trouble.充分必要条件的写作词汇归纳：名词：condition、requirement、necessary、sufficient condition、sufficiency（充分性）、outcome、aftermath（结果、余波）动词：constitute、establish、suffice、result（ing）、induce、render、exclude、rule of形容词、副词：sufficient、necessary、-（必然的、必要的）、necessarily、required三、因果关系（Cause and Effect Fa

23、llacies）因果类错误的攻击原理：原文说A是B的原因，指出A不是原因，原因是C或者D，和充分必要条件是一样的，不同在于语言的操作。1、 无因果类错误（Non sequitur）原文的“因”和“果”之间并不存在因果关系。标志词：so，cause，reason，since，link（关联），population（关联、关系），connection，therefore，and（并列句能传达因果关系）Argument 212：Argument 142：注：a、要读就读名校，自身素养会提高，校友自愿会非常丰富。如果做research，越早去越好。我们国家不提原创性东西，都是看人家的论文做算法的改进，

24、做仿真。b、每晚和杯红葡萄酒、可以安睡。A版本：The arguer fails to establish the causal relationship between the fact that _（“果”） and the claim that _（“因”）. This argument is unacceptable unless there is compelling（相当于persuasive） evidence to support the connection between these two events. Perhaps, for example, _ results f

25、rom _（随便几个原因列进去就可以了）.B版本： The arguer fails to establish the causal relationship between A and B. It is highly possible that other factors contribute to B（归因于也可以用attribute B to A）. B might have resulted from C. It is also likely that D caused B. Lacking evidence that links A to B, it is presumptuous（

26、武断的、莽撞的） to suggest that A was responsible for B.2、时序因果关系类错误（Post hoc, ergo proper hoc）错误原理：原文构建了两个错误，A发生在B之前，B发生在A之后，然后说由于A发生在B之前A就是B的原因。攻击方式：说两个时间的时序关系不能反应其逻辑关系标志词：because，after this，since then，therefore，consequence（因此）、consequentlyArgument 2Argument 102构造一个段落：Based on the fact that A occurred aft

27、er B, the editor infers that B should be responsible for A. However, the sequence of these events, in itself（在他本身来说）, does not suffice to prove that earlier incident（event） caused the later one. It might have resulted from some other events instead: （这里列举原因） to just a few possibilities（等等以上这些原因）. Wi

28、thout ruling out scenarios（场景） such as these, the editor cannot establish a cause-and-effect（专门指代因果关系） relationship between A and B upon which the editors recommendation depends.该段落focus on了两个词：sequence、logic注：推荐电影：幸福终点站（汤姆汉克斯）、蝴蝶效应、电子情书、绿色奇迹、小道惊魂、The May（很多人吓出了毛病）VOICE001-105分钟之前求求你表扬我、再说一次我爱你（刘德华）

29、、童梦奇缘（刘德华，看完了很舒服）、神探（英文名为疯狂的神探）推荐书籍和杂志：科学美国人、TTC（36g的音频文件，还有PCF，先下相关专业，适合练听力）、设置首页为USNews（没记全）3、同时因果错误（Concurrence）错误原理：在时间轴上的某一个段内或某一个时刻上，AB两个事件同时发生，但作者在两事件中强行加入了逻辑联系或因果联系。标志词：meanwhile、also、with、during、under、over（在期间）、parallelArgument 153Argument 85 （有两层同时因果错误）A版本：The argument observes a correlati

30、on between A and B, and then concludes that the former is the cause of the later. However, the argument fails to rule out other possible explanations for A or B. For example, 其他可能原因. Any of these factors might lead to B. Without ruling out all other factors it is unfair to conclude that A is respons

31、ible for B.B版本：（首句指出逻辑错误的名称ETS认为是废话，不提倡）The author commits a fallacy of concurrence（同时性的）、in assuming that4、混淆因果错误（Confuse the cause and effect）高档逻辑错误，但是没有在242个题里出现。错误原理：原文说A导致了B的发生（嵌套这一上三种因果关系），但实际更多可能是B导致了A的发生。攻击方法：首先攻击两者之间可能不存在因果关系；进而让步，即便真的存在因果关系，但似乎我们通过常理可以看出，更多的可能性是由于B的发生导致A的发生。模板：It is possible that the mayor has confused cause with effect respecting the recent developments in Ocean View. Perhaps A was a response（反应） to B. Since the mayor has failed to account for this possibility, the claim that is completely unwarranted.5、攻击“忽略他因”也是用于替换，主义语言的多样化，见讲义P4。模板：The arguer fails to account