英语语言学教程胡壮麟版.docx

1、英语语言学教程胡壮麟版英语语言学教程胡壮麟版Chapter one. Invitation to Linguistic. 1.What is language?“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human munication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intr

2、insic connection between a work (like “book) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books: “book in English, “livre in French, “shu in Chinese. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by

3、nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only lea

4、rn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.2.Design Features of Language.“Design features here refer to the defining properties of hu

5、man language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal munication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability(1)Arbitrariness: By “arbitrariness, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and

6、sounds.(2)Duality: The property of having two levels of structures (phonological and grammatical), units of the primary level being posed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization.(3)Productivity: Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to

7、construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in ones native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation.The property that enables native speakers to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of utterances

8、, including utterances that they have never previously encountered.(4)Displacement: “Displacement, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real a

9、nd unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too.(5)Cultural transmission: This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each sp

10、eaker.(6)Interchangeability: Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.3.Functions of Language. Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative.(1)Phatic function: The “

11、phatic function refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and ments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function.(2)Directive function: The

12、“directive function means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e. g., “Tell me the result when you finish.(3)Informative function: Language serves an “informational function when used to tell something, characterized by the use

13、 of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood).(4)Interrogative function: When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc.(5)Expre

14、ssive function: The “expressive function is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker.(6)Evocative function: The “evocative function is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, s

15、oothe, worry or please.(7)Per formative function: This means people speak to “do things or perform actions.4. What is linguistic?“Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but the language of all human beings.In short, linguistics studies t

16、he general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of munication in their societies or munities.5. Main branches of linguistics.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect

17、of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, psycholinguistics etc.6. Important distinctions in linguistic.(1) synchronic studyvs. diachronic studyThe description of a language at so

18、me point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic).(2) Speech vs. writingSpeech is primary, because it existed long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children l

19、earn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese. In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech doe

20、s not have. Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.(3) Descriptive vs. prescriptiveA linguistic study is “descriptive if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules

21、 for “correct language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive. (4). langue vs. p

22、aroleF. de Saussure refers “langue to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech munity and refers “parole to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an ind

23、ividual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, i.e. to discover the re

24、gularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.(5). petence vs. performanceAccording to N. Chomsky, “petence is the ideal language users knowledge of the rules

25、 of his language, and “performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speakers petence is stable while his performance is often in

26、fluenced by psychological and social factors. So a speakers performance does not always match or equal his supposed petence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study petence, rather than performance.(6). linguistic potential vs. linguistic behaviorThese two terms, or the potential-behavior dis

27、tinction, were made by M. A. K. Halliday in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says (i.e. his “actual linguistic beh

28、avior) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).Chapter 2 Phonetics1.What is phonetics?“Phonetics is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially thos

29、e sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is p

30、roduced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2) Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the hearers point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the

31、brain. (3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear. Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulatory phonetics.2. The IPAThe IPA, abbreviation of “International Phonetic Alphabet, is a promise system making use of symb

32、ols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.3. Place of articulationIt refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. 4. Manner of articulationThe “manner of articulation literally means the way a sound is articulated. 5. Phonology“Phonology is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and t