给水工程英文文献翻译.docx

1、给水工程英文文献翻译附录C：外文文献及其译文外文文献：Removal of Pharmaceuticals during Drinking Water TreatmentThe elimination of selected pharmaceuticals (bezafibrate, clofibric acid, carbamazepine, diclofenac) during drinking water treatment processes was investigated at lab and pilot scale and in real waterworks. No signi

2、ficant removal of pharmaceuticals was observed in batch experiments with sand under natural aerobic and anoxic conditions, thus indicating low sorption properties and high persistence with nonadapted microorganisms. These results were underscored by the presence of carbamazepine in bankfiltrated wat

3、er with anaerobic conditions in a waterworks area. Flocculation using iron(III) chloride in lab-scale experiments (Jar test) and investigations in waterworks exhibited no significant elimination of the selected target pharmaceuticals. However, ozonation was in some cases very effective in eliminatin

4、g these polar compounds. In labscale experiments, 0.5 mg/L ozone was shown to reduce the concentrations of diclofenac and carbamazepine by more than 90%, while bezafibrate was eliminated by 50% with a 1.5 mg/L ozone dose. Clofibric acid was stable even at 3 mg/L ozone. Under waterworks conditions, s

5、imilar removal efficiencies were observed. In addition to ozonation, filtration with granular activated carbon (GAC) was very effective in removing pharmaceuticals. Except for clofibric acid, GAC in pilot-scale experiments and waterworks provided a major elimination of the pharmaceuticals under inve

6、stigation.IntroductionIn Germany, some pharmaceuticals are used in quantities of more than 100 t/yr (1). Pharmacokinetic studies exhibit that an appreciable proportion of the administered pharmaceuticals are excreted via feces and urine (2) and thus are present in the domestic wastewater. A further

7、source for the contamination of wastewater is assumed to be the disposal of (expired) medicine via toilets. However, this portion is very difficult to estimate because reliable data are not available. After passing through sewage treatment plants (STPs), pharmaceutical residues enter receiving water

8、s. Point discharges from pharmaceutical manufacturers can also contribute to contamination of rivers and creeks (3). First results concerning environmental occurrence of pharma-ceuticals are reported by Garrison et al. (4) and Hignite and Azarnoff (5), who detected clofibric acid in the lower microg

9、rams per liter range in treated sewage in the United States. Further studies in 1981 in Great Britain revealed that pharmaceuticals are present in rivers up to 1 g/L (6). On Iona Island (Vancouver, Canada) Rogers et al. (7) identified the two antiphlogistics ibuprofen and naproxen in waste-water. Re

10、cent investigations showed the exposure of a wide range of pharmaceuticals from many medicinal classes (e.g,betablockers, sympathomimetics, antiphlogistics, lipid regu-lators, antiepileptics, antibiotics, vasodilators) to rivers and creeks. Reviews from Halling-Srensen et al. (8), Daughton and Terne

11、s (9), and Jrgensen et al. (10) summarize most of the literature in this new emerging field about the environ-mental relevance of pharmaceuticals. Furthermore, Mohle et al. (11), Alder et al. (12), Ternes et al. (3), and Zuccato et al. (13) have reported the identification of pharmaceuticals in the

12、aquatic environment.Contamination is influenced by the relative portions of raw and treated wastewater (14) such that even small rivers and creeks can be highly contaminated. Groundwater is contaminated with pharmaceuticals primarily by infiltration of surface water containing pharmaceutical residue

13、s as well as by leaks in landfill sites and sewer drains. Because of the widespread occurrence of pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment and sometimes also in the raw water of waterworks, a few cases surfaced where pharmaceuticals were detected in drinking water in the lower nanograms per liter

14、range (15, 16). Although up to now no adverse health effects can be attributed to the consumption of pharmaceuticals at these low concentration levels, based on precautionary principles, drinking water should be free of such anthro-pogenic contaminants.Currently, few papers have been published deali

15、ng with the removal of pharmaceuticals in drinking water treatment. Ozonation and especially advanced oxidation processes seem to be very effective in removal of diclofenac, while clofibric acid and ibuprofen were oxidized in lab-scale experiments mainly by ozone/H2O2 as shown by Zwiener and Frimmel

16、 (17). Heberer et al. (18) exhibited that reverse osmosis is appropriate to remove a variety of different pharmaceuticals from highly contaminated surface waters.The objective of the work presented here was to study the efficiency of different treatment steps to remove the anti-phlogistic diclofenac

17、, the antiepileptic carbamazepine, and the lipid regulators clofibric acid and bezafibrate during drinking water treatment. Therefore, the primary elimination of the selected pharmaceuticals was investigated under laboratory, pilot, and real waterworks conditions. In addition to processes such as ba

18、nk filtration and artificial groundwater recharge, widely used techniques for surface water treatment such as activated carbon filtration, ozonation, and floccula-tion were investigated. The monitoring results of two German waterworks are extended by lab- and pilot-scale experiments to obtain more g

19、eneralized results.Experimental SectionSelected Pharmaceuticals. For all lab- and pilot-scale spiking experiments, four relevant pharmaceuticals (the antiphlo-gistic diclofenac, the antiepileptic carbamazepine, the lipid regulators clofibric acid and bezafibrate) have been selected as target compoun

20、ds. Their molecular structures are shown in Table 1. These compounds have been chosen because of their predominant occurrence in German feeding waters for waterworks such as rivers, bank filtrates, and ground-water (14, 19). Additionally, the antiepileptic primidone was included in oxidation experim

21、ents and a waterworks survey.TABLE 1. Selected Target PharmaceuticalsAnalytical Methods.The determination of the pharma-ceuticals was performed using different analytical methods (see Table 2). All methods were based on a solid-phase extraction of the analytes on to RP-C18 or Lichrolute EN material.

22、 After solid-phase extraction (SPE) and an elution step with methanol or acetone, the compounds were derivatized using different agents. Either a methylation with diazomethane (20) or a silylation with a mixture of N,O-bis(trimethylsilyl)acetamide (BSA) and 5% trimethylchlo-rosilane (TMCS) (Fa. Fluk

23、a, Buchs, Schweiz) were used (60 min at 120 C) (21). Carbamazepine was determined aftersilylation either by a mixture of MSTFA/TMSI/DTE(N-methyl-N-(trimethylsilyl)trifluoroacetamide/trimethylsilylim-idazol/dithioerytrit; 1000 L/2 L/2 g) (22) or by a mixture of BSA/TMCS. For primidone, an acetylation

24、 by acetanhy-dride and ethanolamine was used (22). In all cases, GC-MS was used for the detection of the analytes. Further details of the methods are reported in refs 19-22.All methods enable the precise determination of the target pharmaceuticals in river water and drinking water. An interlaborator

25、y comparison exercise (ICE) between the three participating laboratories at the beginning and the end of the study confirmed the quality of the analytical methods. Groundwater and surface water samples were spiked with the selected pharmaceuticals and analyzed by all three laboratories to confirm th

26、e recoveries of the analytes in the respective matrixes. The mean recovery of the spiked concentrations always exceeded 70% through different spiking levels:0.40-0.90 g/L in surface water and 0.030-0.20 g/L in drinking water. The relative standard deviations between the three participating laborator

27、ies were in general below 25%. Thus, it could be shown that (i) the difference of found concentrations was minor between the threelaboratories and (ii) the spiked concentration could be detected in the groundwater and surface water accuratel.Limits of Quantification (LOQ) and Calibration. The LOQ wa

28、s calculated according to the German DIN 32645 (23) with a confidence interval of 99% using the standard deviation of a linear regression curve. Calibration ranges from 0.005 to 0.050 g/L and from 0.05 to 1 g/L were used with at least seven concentration levels by spiking groundwater. LOQ is another

29、 term for limit of determination (LOD) mentioned in DIN 32645. Since the calculated LOQ values were always between the first and the second calibration points, the LOQ used was set as the second lowest calibration point of the linear correlation to ensure a precise quantification. Hence, the LOQ wer

30、e at least 20 ng/L for diclofenac, carbamazepine, primidone, and clofibric acid and down to 50 ng/L for bezafibrate. However, with a final volume of 100 L instead of 1 mL, LOQ down to 2 ng/L were achieved for clofibric acid, primidone, diclofenac, and carbamazepine and down to 10 ng/L for bezafibrat

31、e. The calibration was performed over the whole procedure after spiking groundwater with the standard mixture of the selected pharmaceuticals. The calculation of the concentrations in native samples was carried out using surrogate standards (see Table 2) and a linear 7-10 point calibration curve.Ref

32、erence Standards. The reference standards clofibric acid, bezafibrate, carbamazepine, diclofenac,and primidone as well as the surrogate standards meclofenamic acid and 2,3-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,3-D) were purchased from Sigma, Germany; dihydrocarbamazepine was purchased from Alltech, Germany.

33、 All standards were dissolved in methanol (1 mg/mL) and diluted with methanol to the final stock solution of 10 g/mL.Treatment Processes Used in Waterworks. (a) Study of Biodegradation in Batch Experiments with Native Surface Water, Groundwater, and Different Filter Materials. Bio-degradation is one of the crucial factors that determine the eli