土木工程英文文献及翻译.docx

1、土木工程英文文献及翻译vl ineeringivil engeein i professon enginringdiscipline that deals withthe dsn, cnstcion，nmaintenanceof tepsical an naural bult nvrmen,nludingwoks lie brides，rod，anal, ams，an bulins123 Civil eninerg s leengneeri cpne after miiay enierig，4 i was den to tinuih onmilitryengneeig rom mliaryen

2、gineerng5It is adiially bokn nto several sbdisins inuig environealeineing， geothica egieerng, ructural engineig，rnsporttion eginerig, uncipl or rbanngiering, wate resoures ngnerin, marials nineering， coasta nierig,4surveng，and cnsructi ngineering6 Civil ngineei takes place oallleves： in he pbiector

3、rom muicial throgh tontiona ovrnment，anine privae secto fromindiidahomeownrthug o intninal cmpane。Hiory of thecivil enginriprofeionSee lo:Hitoyof ructua enginerigEnineerng has been aspt of if since th begnnngs ofhuman eistne. heeaiet pactes of ii eneeringmy hae oencd tween 400 an 20 BC inncienEypand

4、 Meopotmia （Anient Ir)when mans tated abadn nc existen， thusausing a need tconstuion of shelerDurin this tme，traspratin eame inceasinglyimpotant ed t the developmetof e wee and sailng.Untilmer tiet as n clea isicto btween ivil ennerig nd rhtecue, and the term engineer ad rchtect weremainly gegraphic

5、al vaiatons eferingoesamepn，fte ued itrchanebly7 Thecontructin of Pyrai in Ept (circa 27-50 B) might be onidrd he first nstance o lge structue onstructions. Oher ancenthitricivi engineeig nstruions nclde the ParhenonbyIkts inAncenGrece（447-38 BC), the AppWaybyoan egneers （c。31 BC),the reat Wl f hin

6、byGenerl MengTen nder rder om Cin meorShihHuang Ti （c。 20 BC) and t stupas onrcte in ancent ri Lnka ike h Jevarama a the eensive irrigation wsinurdp. e Romns developd civl strcteshroghout their empire， icluding epecialy aqudts，isu,hrbus， brige, dams n rods.In he8thnty， thetrm il egeing wa coe toicop

7、orateallhis ivi opsed o mlarynginer。5 Thefirt e-proclaedciilengiee was Jon Smaoo ontrcte th Estoe ihthose.6 In 1 Smeton nd ome of his lleages fmed e SoinocietyofCivi Enginer， gp leaders he profession who met infomal ove dnner。 Thgh thr as videc o some ehnil etings， it was ltle oretha a sociasciety。I

8、1818 e nstittio o Civil ngiers wasfund inLnd， and in 1820 the eminent engine Tomas Telford bae i firt reidnt。 Te insttonreved aRoal harter in 1828， ormal ecogisingcivi nineerng as a ofeson. Its chare dfid cvi enginerigas：the ar ofdirecngthe greatsuces o owe ture f the u and cnveienc of mn， as th mes

9、 roduction ad otrafic intts, bo fr extrnaand internal r， s appie n te constructon of ros, bridge， quedut， canls，ie nvigationand dks frira nercours ad exchan, andin the onstction fport， hrbors，mle， reakter and ghoses，nd in the ao navigtion by artficial wr for te upsso commec， andte consucond aplicio

10、omchinery, nd in te rane of ciiesand townshfst priaeclleg to tech Civil nieering ithe Unitd Staes was NorwichUnivesityouded in 181 by Cptain Alden Patride。9 T firs dere in CivilEngineerng n thUnited Statwas wrdedby Resser Poltchi Institt in 1835。10 he firs suh dre to be ared to awmanwas rantedby orn

11、el Uiviy oNo StntBlatcin 1905. Hstorof il engineriCvil gineeing is he apliction f psalad scientific principles， ad its history is inite linked o dnce in ndsandig o pyics an mathematicsthrughothitoy Becas l ngringisa wid ranig prfssio， incldg sevral erte pecialized ubdscilnes， ts istry s linkd to kno

12、wled ofutues, mateilssciene, egraph， glog, soil， hydroog， enioet， mechanics d othefieldsThrughou cint andmdieval hry s acitetural deig andconrction wa carred ot arisans, suh as ston asonsand capenes, rii to te rol of msterbuiler Knolde was retied ngi adsldouppatd by advaces。 Sures,roads annfrastuctu

13、re tat existe were reptitive，ndncrases in sce were nrmental.12On of te earlt example of a centicapprach to phsical ad ematca robles applicableocivilenginri is thewok ofArhimdes nthe 3rd entury C， inclung Arimdes Prnciple,wch underis o ndestandingf buyn, nd practial slutionschas Archedescrew Brhmaupt

14、a， anIndian matheaician, usrithmeic in th th centuyAD， bsd on HnuArabic umral， o xavation（voume) ption13Ci ngineerstpiclly sssn acaemic degr w amajr i cvl engineering。 The legth of tudy for suh degree is suy heeto fe year and the comlte de is usualydesignatd as a Bachelr of Engneering，thugh senivers

15、itie esgate te egreeas a Balrof Sciene The dgree generay includesunitcerng physic， mtemtis， rject maeent，deign and specic tps i civil ngieering. Inity suhopics covrmst， if no al， of the subdispls of civil enineerng。 Stdets tenchooso specilie in oe omoe sub-discplies towards the ed o thee。1 hile an U

16、ndergauae（BEng/Sc） egre willnormally prvid successul stdents wih industrccredteqafiation， so unierstesffr postguate nginering aards （MEng/) hic allw studes o futr speciliin hr parcularea o nterest itin engineerin15n ostcontries，a Baeors de i engirin represets heist ste towds prfessional certifiction

17、 and thgee rogratselfs ertfied by a pofessiolboy. Afte comlting a certifid dere prom h ngieer must tisfy ange ofqurents (includingwr xpein andexm equremnts) before eing crted。 cerified， e eniner i esina te titl of rfessionl Engnr(n he nitedStates， Caad nd uth Afica）, rtered Engin （i mostConath counr

18、es)，hartere Profsionlngneer(i Australia and ew Zeland)， o Epn Enineer(in uchthe Eupean Unin). Thr re iration ngineenggeent twee relevant profesional bodis which ar designed to llw nineers racce acros nernational brder.The avntage of crtfication vadependi upn aion or exampe, in the United tats andCda

19、”only a icened ngineermy repae， signandsal, an sumitengineering as rawings t a lic horityfrapproal， salngineern wo for pulcad rivatclient.16 This reqiremnt s enforced y state and prvincia lgisatio such as Qubes gineer Act7 In o countries, sh leislati exsts. InAstli, te lceingof enginers i limted t t

20、estate of eensand. Practiy ll certifi boi maintan a cod of ethics thatthyxet all ember obide by r risk exulsi8 Ithi way， hese orgniztnspl an imornole n intaing ethcal standrdsfor te rofesn。 Evn injrisdictions were certfcatin ha litleo no leg barng onwo，engieers r ubectto otrat a。 In cases whre engin

21、er work ils or sh may besubject toe tr of neggncend， inextreme cas， th chargof crimialnegigece。ciaio neeedAn gners work mstalo copy wih numerouoher rules an regulation such suidg codes d gislationperanio nvironmeal lw.CresThre is n ne ypicalaeer pah or ivi engineer os peop ho gradate wt iil eninerin

22、gdegrsstrtwithjbstht requrao level esponibliy， and atheew ngineersprve ther compte， they aretrusedih tasks ta ae lrerconequenes arequirahighr leve of rposibiity. Hovr,thi cbrhof ciil ngneen er pa opions va Insm ieldsand fims， ntrlevelngees areput workrimarily moitoring cstrutio i th field，servingas

23、the eyed r” of senor esgn egineers; whil inother rea， ntylevel engners peormthe moe ruine ask asis ordsin nd interretaion Exerined engiees gneraly d mrecomplex analysi odesgn wrk， r maagement of mre cplexdsign project, ormnagmt of oter eginers, orinto specializd coultig， cldin forns ineeing。I gneal，

24、 civienineerg i concered wit the oveallnterfac of um reate fixe projts with the reate ld。 Geneal civi enginers ork csey ith sreyosad speilized civi gineer tofit ndserv fied rojectsithn their ven site，commuity nd terran bydsing graing, daina， paemet, water suppl, sewr servc， eectricad cmmuncations supply, and lnd dviios. Geneal ners spenmuch o ter tievstirec ites, devping community consns, adppaingcostucionplans。 General civil enginerigis alorferr to aite eineing, a brnch ofivil egineeringthat primary ocues oncnvertin t