Language Learning Strategies.docx

1、Language Learning StrategiesLanguage Learning Strategies: An Overview for L2 TeachersMichael Lessard-Cloustonz95014 at kgupyr.kwansei.ac.jpKwansei Gakuin University (Nishinomiya, Japan) First published in Essays in Languages and Literatures, 8, at Kwansei Gakuin University, December 1997.This articl

2、e provides an overview of language learning strategies (LLS) for second and foreign language (L2/FL) teachers. To do so it outlines the background of LLS and LLS training, discusses a three step approach teachers may follow in using LLS in their classes, and summarises key reflections and questions

3、for future research on this aspect of L2/FL education. It also lists helpful contacts and internet sites where readers may access up-to-date information on LLS teaching and research. IntroductionWithin the field of education over the last few decades a gradual but significant shift has taken place,

4、resulting in less emphasis on teachers and teaching and greater stress on learners and learning. This change has been reflected in various ways in language education and applied linguistics, ranging from the Northeast Conference (1990) entitled Shifting the Instructional Focus to the Learner and ann

5、ual Learners Conferences held in conjuction with the TESL Canada convention since 1991, to key works on the learner-centred curriculum (Nunan, 1988, 1995) and learner-centredness as language education (Tudor, 1996). This article provides an overview of key issues concerning one consequence of the ab

6、ove shift: the focus on and use of language learning strategies (LLS) in second and foreign language (L2/FL) learning and teaching. In doing so, the first section outlines some background on LLS and summarises key points from the LLS literature. The second section considers some practical issues rel

7、ated to using LLS in the classroom, outlining a three step approach to implementing LLS training in normal L2/FL courses. The third section then briefly discusses some important issues and questions for further LLS research. In the fourth section the article ends by noting a number of contacts reade

8、rs may use to locate and receive up-to-date information on LLS teaching and research in this widely developing area in L2/FL education. 1. BACKGROUNDLearning StrategiesIn a helpful survey article, Weinstein and Mayer (1986) defined learning strategies (LS) broadly as behaviours and thoughts that a l

9、earner engages in during learning which are intended to influence the learners encoding process (p. 315). Later Mayer (1988) more specifically defined LS as behaviours of a learner that are intended to influence how the learner processes information (p. 11). These early definitions from the educatio

10、nal literature reflect the roots of LS in cognitive science, with its essential assumptions that human beings process information and that learning involves such information processing. Clearly, LS are involved in all learning, regardless of the content and context. LS are thus used in learning and

11、teaching math, science, history, languages and other subjects, both in classroom settings and more informal learning environments. For insight into the literature on LS outside of language education, the works of Dansereau (1985) and Weinstein, Goetz and Alexander (1988) are key, and one recent LS s

12、tudy of note is that of Fuchs, Fuchs, Mathes and Simmons (1997). In the rest of this paper, the focus will specifically be on language LS in L2/FL learning. Language Learning Strategies DefinedWithin L2/FL education, a number of definitions of LLS have been used by key figures in the field. Early on

13、, Tarone (1983) defined a LS as an attempt to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language - to incoporate these into ones interlanguage competence (p. 67). Rubin (1987) later wrote that LS are strategies which contribute to the development of the language system which th

14、e learner constructs and affect learning directly (p. 22). In their seminal study, OMalley and Chamot (1990) defined LS as the special thoughts or behaviours that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information (p. 1). Finally, building on work in her book for teachers (Oxf

15、ord, 1990a), Oxford (1992/1993) provides specific examples of LLS (i.e., In learning ESL, Trang watches U.S. TV soap operas, guessing the meaning of new expressions and predicting what will come next) and this helpful definition: .language learning strageties - specific actions, behaviours, steps, o

16、r techniques that students (often intentionally) use to improve their progress in developing L2 skills. These strageties can facilitate the internalization, storage, retrieval, or use of the new language. Strategies are tools for the self-directed involvement necessary for developing communicative a

17、bility. (Oxford, 1992/1993, p. 18)From these definitions, a change over time may be noted: from the early focus on the product of LSS (linguistic or sociolinguistic competence), there is now a greater emphasis on the processes and the characteristics of LLS. At the same time, we should note that LLS

18、 are distinct from learning styles, which refer more broadly to a learners natural, habitual, and preferred way(s) of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills (Reid, 1995, p. viii), though there appears to be an obvious relationship between ones language learning style and his

19、 or her usual or preferred language learning strategies. What are the Characteristics of LLS?Although the terminology is not always uniform, with some writers using the terms learner strategies (Wendin & Rubin, 1987), others learning strategies (OMalley & Chamot, 1990; Chamot & OMalley, 1994), and s

20、till others language learning strategies (Oxford, 1990a, 1996), there are a number of basic characteristics in the generally accepted view of LLS. First, LLS are learner generated; they are steps taken by language learners. Second, LLS enhance language learning and help develop language competence,

21、as reflected in the learners skills in listening, speaking, reading, or writing the L2 or FL. Third, LLS may be visible (behaviours, steps, techniques, etc.) or unseen (thoughts, mental processes). Fourth, LLS involve information and memory (vocabulary knowledge, grammar rules, etc.). Reading the LL

22、S literature, it is clear that a number of further aspects of LLS are less uniformly accepted. When discussing LLS, Oxford (1990a) and others such as Wenden and Rubin (1987) note a desire for control and autonomy of learning on the part of the learner through LLS. Cohen (1990) insists that only cons

23、cious strategies are LLS, and that there must be a choice involved on the part of the learner. Transfer of a strategy from one language or language skill to another is a related goal of LLS, as Pearson (1988) and Skehan (1989) have discussed. In her teacher-oriented text, Oxford summarises her view

24、of LLS by listing twelve key features. In addition to the characteristics noted above, she states that LLS: allow learners to become more self-directed expand the role of language teachers are problem-oriented involve many aspects, not just the cognitive can be taught are flexible are influenced by

25、a variety of factors.(Oxford, 1990a, p. 9)Beyond this brief outline of LLS characterisitics, a helpful review of the LLS research and some of the implications of LLS training for second language acquisition may be found in Gu (1996). Why are LLS Important for L2/FL Learning and Teaching?Within commu

26、nicative approaches to language teaching a key goal is for the learner to develop communicative competence in the target L2/FL, and LLS can help students in doing so. After Canale and Swains (1980) influencial article recognised the importance of communication strategies as a key aspect of strategic

27、 (and thus communicative) competence, a number of works appeared about communication strategies in L2/FL teaching2. An important distinction exists, however, between communication and language learning strategies. Communication strategies are used by speakers intentionally and consciously in order t

28、o cope with difficulties in communicating in a L2/FL (Bialystok, 1990). The term LLS is used more generally for all strategies that L2/FL learners use in learning the target language, and communication strategies are therefore just one type of LLS. For all L2 teachers who aim to help develop their s

29、tudents communicative competence and language learning, then, an understanding of LLS is crucial. As Oxford (1990a) puts it, LLS .are especially important for language learning because they are tools for active, self-directed involvement, which is essential for developing communicative competence (p

30、. 1). In addition to developing students communicative competence, LLS are important because research suggests that training students to use LLS can help them become better language learners. Early research on good language learners by Naiman, Frohlich, Stern, and Todesco (1978, 1996), Rubin (1975),

31、 and Stern (1975) suggested a number of positive strategies that such students employ, ranging from using an active task approach in and monitoring ones L2/FL performance to listening to the radio in the L2/FL and speaking with native speakers. A study by OMalley and Chamot (1990) also suggests that

32、 effective L2/FL learners are aware of the LLS they use and why they use them. Grahams (1997) work in French further indicates that L2/FL teachers can help students understand good LLS and should train them to develop and use them. A caution must also be noted though, because, as Skehan (1989) states, there is always the possibility that the good language learning strategies.are also used by bad language learners, but other reasons cause them to be unsuccessful (p. 76). In fact Vann and Abraham (1990) found evidence that suggests that both good and unsucc