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1、译文翻译Unit 4 Environment Analysis 环境分析Environmental analysis involves the performance of chemical, physical, and biological measurements in an environmental system. 在一个环境系统里，环境分析包括化学、物理以及生物测量的性能。This system may involve either the natural or the polluted environment, although the term “environmental an

2、alysis” is increasingly used to refer only to situations in which measurements are made of pollutants.这一系统不仅包含自然环境还包括污染环境，但是环境分析这个术语正在越来越多地用于污染物的测量.Normally, four types of measurements are made: qualitative analysis to identify the species; quantitative analysis to determine how much of the species

3、is present; speciation or characterization to establish details of chemical form and the manner in which the pollutant is actually present (such as being adsorbed onto the surface of a particle): and impact analysis in which measurements are made for the specific purpose of determining the extent to

4、 which an environmental impact is produced by the pollutants in question.通常，测量有四种形式：定性分析，以确定目前的物种；定量分析，以确定有多少物种存在；形态或性质，确定目前污染物的详细的化学组分和方法（如被吸附到表面的粒子）；和影响分析中测量的具体目的是确定在何种程度的环境影响所产生的污染物问题。The overall objective of environmental analysis is to obtain information about both natural and pollutant species

5、 present in the environment so as to make a realistic assessment of their probable behavior.环境分析的目的是为了制造一个可行的现实的评估，去获得目前在环境中自然和污染物的种类的相关信息，以便根据它们大致上的生活习惯做出切实的评估.In the case of pollutants, this involves assessment of their actual or potential environmental impact, which may be manifest in several way

6、s. 有可能以多种方式显示出的污染物方面涉及到那些实际货物的评估或者潜在的环境影响。 Thus, a pollutant species may present a toxicological hazard to plants or animals. 因此，一个被污染的物种可能对植物或者动物造成危害。It may also cause contamination of resources (such as air, water, and soil) so that they cannot be utilized for other purposes. 它可能也会引起资源上的污染（比如大气、水和

7、土壤）以致他们没法利用于其他目的。The effects of pollutants on materials, especially building materials, may be another area of concern and one which is often very visible and displeasing (for example, the defacing of ancient statues by sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere). 污染物对于原料的影响，特别是建筑材料，在某一区域是显然可见的，让人不愉快。（比如，大气中二

8、氧化硫对古建筑的损害）A further area of environmental impact involves esthetic depreciation such as reduces visibility, dirty skies, and unpleasant odors. 未来环境影响分析的领域将降低，比如能见度的下降、天空的污染和难闻的气味。Finally, it is important to recognize that an environmental impact may not always be discernible by normal human percept

9、ion so that detection may require sophisticated chemical or physical analysis.最后，重要的是认识到以人类正常的知觉可能难以辨别出环境之间的冲突，以致发现需要高精度的化学或者物理分析。In order to provide a meaningful description of the general field of environmental analysis, this field may be considered from three point pf view: the basic concepts und

10、erlying the reasons for and choice of the analysis which are normally performed; the available techniques and methodology commonly used; and the current status of capabilities in environmental analysis.为了提供环境分析的一般领域的一个意味深长的描述,这个领域也许从三个观点考虑： 强调分析的选择的原因为选择执行通常的基本概念; 常用的有价值的技术和方法; 和在当前状态下的环境分析能力。Some o

11、f the philosophical concepts which form the bases for environmental analyses are as follow.一些来自环境分析基础的哲学概念如下： Purpose目的Collection and analysis of an environmental sample may be undertaken for the purpose of research or monitoring, or as a spot check. 为了研究或监测，一个环境样品的收集和分析可能被快速进行。A spot check analysis

12、 is used to obtain rapid information about the approximate extent or nature of an environmental problem.快速监测分析常被用于获得一个环境问题的大概范围和性质的信息。Authenticity真实性Whatever the information being sought, it is vitally important to obtain an authentic sample which represents the particular system being investigated.

13、 无论什么被寻找的信息，得到代表被调查的特殊系统的一个可靠样品是极为重要。In fact, the ability to obtain an authentic sample is probably one of the most difficult aspects of any environmental analysis due to the considerable complexity and heterogeneity of most environmental systems.实际上，由于多数环境系统可观的复杂和非均匀性，获得一个可靠样品大概是所有环境分析最困难的方面之一。Dete

14、ction limits察觉限制A statement of the detection limits which can be attained by the analytical method being employed must always be included in providing the results of any environmental analysis. This is because considerable confusion exists about the meaning of a “zero” level of concentration. In fac

15、t, it is probably never possible to state that none of the atoms or molecules of the species in question are present so that no true zero exists.察觉限制的一种陈述是被使用的分析方式所尝试，必须总是被包含在提供所有环境分析结果里面。这是因为关于“0”浓度的含义存在相当大的混乱。事实上，这也许是不可能实现的：物种里面没有原子或分子，所以没有真正的“0”浓度存在。Precision and accuracy精确性与准确性In reporting an en

16、vironmental analysis it is also necessary to specify the precision and accuracy associated with the measurements. 在报道一个环境分析也需要确切的指明等测量相关的精确性和准确性。Thus, many environmental measurements involve comparison of results obtained in different systems or under different conditions (of temperature, time, poll

17、utant concentration, and so on) in the same system so that it is necessary to establish whether two numbers which are different are in fact indicative of different conditions.这样，许多环境测量，包含获得不同系统或同一系统不同条件结果的比较，以至于，有必要找出两个不同类型数字在事实上是否不是不同条件的指示。State of matter物质状态In making an environmental analysis it i

18、s necessary to designate the physical form of the species being analyzed. 在决策环境分析，标明所分析物种的物理构成是有必要的。Most simply, this involves the actual state of matter in which the species exists (whether it is solid, liquid, or gas) since many species (both inorganic and organic) may exist concurrently in differ

19、ent states. 最简单的，由于许多物种（包括无机和有机）可能存在同时存在不同的形式，这涉及到存在的物种（无论是固体，液体或气体）的实际存在形态的问题。For example, certain organic gases can exist either as gases or adsorbed onto the surface of solid particles, and the analytical procedures employed for determination of each form are quite different.例如，某些有机气体可作为气体或吸附表面的固

20、体颗粒存在，而确定各种形式采用的分析程序是完全不同。Element/compound distinction元素、化合物的区别One of the most strongly emphasized aspects of environmental analysis involves the distinction between a chemical element and the chemical compound in which that element exists. 环境分析中强调的一个重要方面涉及到化学元素和有元素存在化学物的区别。It is appropriate to esta

21、blish the chemical form in which a given element exists in an environmental sample rather than simply to specify the fact that the element is present at a given concentration. 它明确地给出化学物在存在环境中的元素构成而不是简单给出元素现在的浓度。While such a concept is philosophically acceptable, analytical methodology has not reache

22、d the stage where specification of inorganic compounds preset at trace level can readily be achieved.当这样的概念在科学上被接受，分析方法还未达到很容易地精确测出无机化合物痕量存在的水平。Particle surfaces颗粒表面 Where pollutant species are present in or associated with a condensed phase, it is sometimes necessary to establish whether the pollut

23、ant is part of the bulk system or present on its surface. 污染物存在或联系凝结的状态,有时需要去确定污染物是否在体积内或存在它表面.Such a consideration is particularly meaningful since material present on the surface of an airborne particle, for example, comes into immediate contact with the external environment, whereas that which is

24、 distributed uniformly throughout the particle is effectively present at a much lower concentration and can exert a much lower chemical intensity at the particle surface. 尤其意味深长的是因为物质存在与空中颗粒表面,例如直接与外部环境接触,然而在颗粒表面分布均匀在整个颗粒是有效地呈现在更低浓度和可以发挥更低的化学活性.Since airborne particles can be inhaled, surface predom

25、inance can result in high localized concentrations of chemical species at the points of particle deposition in the lung.由于可以吸入空中的颗粒,表面控制可以导致肺部颗粒沉积点化学物质局部浓度升高.Availability有效性 While not one of the analyses normally performed by analytical chemists, determination of the availability of a chemical speci

26、es is often necessary. 虽然有效性分析通常不是由分析化学家进行的,但是确定化学物质的有效性是有必要的.To exert a meaningful environmental effect, a pollutant species must almost always enter solution. 为了更好发挥环境效果,一个污染物必须总是进入溶液.For instance, toxic compounds associated with airborne particles must be dissolved by lung fluids before either a

27、local or systemic effect can be produced. 例如,有毒混合物和空中颗粒必须在产生局部或系统效果之前被肺液溶解.Thus, laboratory-scale simulation of the availability characteristics of a chemical species can provide a necessary link between its presence and its eventual impact.因此,实验室范围的化学物种有效性特征的模拟可以提供一个关于它的存在与最终影响之间的联系.Environmental e

28、ffect环境影响 The final link in the analytical/environmental effects chain involves determination of the actual environment effect produced.在分析环境影响的链子中,最后一个连接包含了实际产生环境影响的鉴定. In most cases, this involves some form of biological measurement or bioassay which determines the toxicological effect upon a biol

29、ogical organism.在大部分事件中,这包含了一些生物测定的形式或生物鉴定,以确定一个有机生物的毒性影响.Due to the expense, complexity, and time-consuming nature of bioassays, it is usual to substitute a chemical analysis for purposes of monitoring toxicological effects, and in setting standards for compliance. 由于生物鉴定的花费,复杂性和耗时性，所以经常用化学分析代替监控毒理

30、学的作用目的,同时要设定遵守的标准.In doing so, however, it is necessary to establish a so-called dose-response relationship between the level of one or more pollutant species and the degree of toxic impact.然而,这样做的同时,是有必要建立一个关于一个或多个污染物的级别与毒性影响等级之间的作用-反应关系,Unit 5 Type and Sources of Air Pollutants 空气污染物的类型和来源What is

31、air pollution? Air pollution is normally defined as air that contains one or more chemicals in high enough concentration to harm humans, other animals, vegetation or materials. 什么是空气污染 ？空气污染通常是指那种包含一种或多种化学物质富集到高浓度并足以伤害人类、其他动物、植物或材料的空气。There are two major types of air pollution.主要有两种类型的空气污染 。A primar

32、y air pollution is a chemical added directly to the air that occurs in a harmful concentration.初级空气污染是指有害的浓度直接进入到空气中的化学物质。It can be a natural air component, such as carbon dioxide, that rise above its normal concentration, or something not usually found in the air, such as a lead compound emitted by

33、 cars burning leaded gasoline. 这种化学物质可以是一个自然的空气成分，如超过了正常浓度的二氧化碳，或通常不会在空气中发现的，如汽车燃烧含铅汽油所排放出来的主要尾气。A secondary air pollution is a harmful chemical formed in the atmosphere through a chemical reaction among air components.次生空气污染是指在大气中由气体成分之间发生化学反应的有害化学物质。Serious air pollution usually results over a city or other area that is emitting high leve