经济学.docx

1、经济学曼昆经济学原理阅读笔记（一）曼昆的经济学定义：Economics is the study of how society manages its scarce resources。曼昆的经济学十原理中第一条：PEOPLE FACE TRADEOFFS。这一原理的的两段经典举例：When people are grouped into societies, they face different kinds of tradeoffs.The classic tradeoff is between “guns and butter.” The more we spend on nationa

2、ldefense to protect our shores from foreign aggressors (guns), the less we can spendon consumer goods to raise our standard of living at home (butter). Also importantin modern society is the tradeoff between a clean environment and a high level ofincome. Laws that require firms to reduce pollution r

3、aise the cost of producinggoods and services. Because of the higher costs, these firms end up earning smallerprofits, paying lower wages, charging higher prices, or some combination of thesethree. Thus, while pollution regulations give us the benefit of a cleaner environmentand the improved health t

4、hat comes with it, they have the cost of reducingthe incomes of the firms owners, workers, and customers.Another tradeoff society faces is between efficiency and equity. Efficiencymeans that society is getting the most it can from its scarce resources. Equitymeans that the benefits of those resource

5、s are distributed fairly among societysmembers. In other words, efficiency refers to the size of the economic pie, andequity refers to how the pie is divided. Often, when government policies are beingdesigned, these two goals conflict.Efficiency 的定义：the property of society getting the most it can fr

6、om its scarce resources。Equity 的定义：the property of distributing economic prosperity fairly among the members of society。对于社会决策者的 ZF 来说，效率和平等是一对很难平衡的矛盾，容易顾此失彼。显而易见，如果一个 ZF 的经济政策造成的局面是既缺少效率，又增大了不平等，那对该 ZF 的评价只能是失败。ZF 是代表社会行使管理稀缺资源的主体，要提高资源利用的效率，就要牺牲平等，要兼顾平等，就会打击勤奋群体的工作效率。但至少，无论经济政策往哪一方倾斜，对于社会整体来说，是在进步

7、。如果这些资源被有特权的特定群体所占据，则不可能出现效率，同时又不能产生平等。既无效率又无平等的社会，其崩溃是必然的。眼前正是这样一个病态的社会，决策者再不悬崖勒马，可以想见其结局。在资源由构成社会的所有家庭和公司的联合作用或集体行为分配的社会中，出现上述矛盾的时候，是相对容易解决的，因为决策总是根据人们的利益倾向于去纠正过当的行为；而在由一个中央决策者来实施分配的时候，比如中国，就是个大大的困难了。第二条：THE COST OF SOMETHING IS WHAT YOU GIVE UP TO GET IT第三条：RATIONAL PEOPLE THINK AT THE MARGIN第四条：

8、PEOPLE RESPOND TO INCENTIVES第五条：TRADE CAN MAKE EVERYONE BETTER OFF第六条：MARKETS ARE USUALLY A GOOD WAY TO ORGANIZE ECONOMIC ACTIVITY第七条：GOVERNMENTS CAN SOMETIMES IMPROVE MARKET OUTCOMES第八条：A COUNTRYS STANDARD OF LIVING DEPENDS ON ITS ABILITY TO PRODUCE GOODS AND SERVICES第九条：PRICES RISE WHEN THE GOVERN

9、MENT PRINTS TOO MUCH MONEY第十条：SOCIETY FACES A SHORT-RUN TRADEOFF BETWEEN INFLATION AND UNEMPLOYMENT曼昆经济学原理阅读笔记（二）市场经济的定义：market economy - an economy that allocates resources through the decentralized decisions of many firms and households as they interact in markets for goods and services.相对于计划经济体制来

10、说，大陆的经济体制是一个处于向市场经济过渡期的怪胎。其最大的奇怪之处在于 ZF 不是计划经济时期的单纯的指挥者，也不是像现代西方国家的各种经济实体联合的代言人，而是既要做指挥者，又要以普通经济实体的身份参与市场。而我们根据曼昆经济学的定义，经济学是研究社会如何管理其稀缺资源的学科，从而知道，在中国，ZF 是社会稀缺资源的管理者。那么很显然了，用一个网友的生动例子：ZF 既是球员，又是裁判，那么别人怎么玩？房地产市场的景象正是一个生动的写照。ZF 手里有土地，银行是 ZF 的，而 ZF 又要直接或间接的参与房地产，而众多与政府有正当或不正当关系的 KFS 也依靠此势力进入市场，这样的市场不受市场

11、的那只“看不见的手”控制，成本可以被压到远低于正常市场价格水平，利润则被通过操作成倍提升。所以 ZF 发财了，ZF 是少数人之 ZF，所以少数人发财了；所以 KFS 暴利了，KFS 是这少数人中一分子；所以炒房者利用了这一点，也跟着赚了一把。同理可以推论石油行业，为什么国际油价上涨，我们也跟着涨，国际油价下跌，我们却不跟着跌。还可以推论交通，电信，以及一切为 ZF 所控制的稀缺资源所衍生的行业。只不过房地产业现在是矛盾的集中点而已。中国并不是市场经济，而政府此前的一系列控制房地产行业的措施全使用经济手段，比如升息，比如加税，这些政策失败了，而且甚至还加速了房价上涨，因为增加的这些成本最终要落实

12、在价格里。就是说这种市场调节的手段，只对真正受市场规律制约的广大老百姓有效，他们为升息加税而受害，作为铁三角中的一角的 KFS 并不受此手段的制约，不但不受制约还能把这一部分压力转嫁给受制约的老百姓。这也可以解释为什么人民币对美元在升值，而国内购买力在下降。解决问题的办法自然还得依靠行政手段，这只有在影响到 ZF 存在的情况下才会发生。那时 ZF 要做的事只有一件，丢卒保帅，即砍掉 KFS 这条膀子。今天早晨看到搜狐新闻说，北京市政府已经明令禁止未封顶楼房的个人贷款，这就是行政手段，但是该文章又特别提到银行的观望，尤其国有四大银行似乎可以打打擦边球，这就是上述的球员裁判的又一个表现。不管怎么说

13、，ZF 目前还没走到断臂的那一步。所以我遗憾他们动手控制的太早了，现在的局面还在他们的控制之内。事情看起来很糟糕，可是每个人都的确能感受到这个国家经济仍在上升，仍然是繁荣的局面，老百姓的收入状况从总体上来看在稳步提升。这为什么？我想起亚当斯密在国民财富的性质和原因的研究中提到当时英国面临的同样的局面时说过（大意），这个国家之所以在不断前进，人民生活状况不断在改善，不是因为国家政策的英明，而完全是因为该国家人民的勤劳，不仅抵消了那些失误政策的负面效应，而且能有少量盈余。而在目前的中国，老百姓的负担恐怕比十七十八世纪的英国老百姓的负担要沉重得多。曼昆经济学原理阅读笔记（三）第八条原理：A COUN

14、TRYS STANDARD OF LIVING DEPENDS ON ITS ABILITY TO PRODUCE GOODS AND SERVICES“The relationship between productivity and living standards also has profound implications for public policy.Productivity 定义：the amount of goods and services produced from each hour of a workes timeBecause lower investment t

15、oday means lower productivity in the future, government budget deficits are generally thought to depress growth in living standards.”在亚洲，生产率最高的几个国家当数新加坡，韩国，日本。而韩国人跟日本人又被公认为世界上工作最为勤奋的国家。高生产率加高的工作小时数，这样的国家，如何能落后？相比之下，中国大城市的年轻人，工作也相当勤奋，就业压力和生活压力迫使他们拼命工作，北京上海深圳这些城市的发展速度也不可能不快。政策的倾斜使社会中的稀缺资源（人力是其中最为稀缺的）集

16、中供应了这些城市，其发展速度焉能不快？使资源得到合理的分配，使收入得到合理的分配，这是政府现在迫切要做的事。政府增加财政预算的赤字，就是政府要从市场中多拿走一部分钱，意味着市场失去了原本可用于生产的一部分钱，这就要威胁社会生活水准的提高。如果政府拿这些钱集中做了经济上的投资，比如在北京扶持了某些高新企业，投资了固定资产，那么北京的人均生活水平将被大大提高，而外地则相反。如果政府拿这些钱砸在了水里，比如修了国家大剧院，修了世纪坛，或者拿这些钱去填补亏空或支持腐败成本，那么整个社会的生活水平都要受到影响。这可以解释为什么看起来大家都在拼命工作，GDP 也在噌噌往上涨，而我们的生活水平却没有以与之相

17、应的节奏上涨。第九条原理：PRICES RISE WHEN THE GOVERNMENT PRINTS TOO MUCH MONEY（政府印制了过多的钞票时会造成价格上涨）“inflation（通货膨胀）的定义：an increase in the overall level of prices in the economyWhat causes inflation? In almost all cases of large or persistent inflation, the culprit turns out to be the samegrowth in the quantity o

18、f money.”通货膨胀是抵消人们努力工作的成果的罪魁祸首，而造成通货膨胀的原因则是政府印制了过多的钞票。我们可以比较容易解释的目前通货膨胀状况的一个原因是：政府在固定资产尤其房地产也投入过分，造成了银行资金的短缺，而解决的办法则是加大钞票的印刷量。可以理解最近的关于 ZF 加紧收紧银根的消息，正是要设法回收资金，减少钞票的过度印刷，从而控制通胀。这个过程不可能很快，至少要一年后，才能初步看到成效，而这还要取决于 ZF 的决心和力度。第十条原理：SOCIETY FACES A SHORT-RUN TRADEOFF BETWEEN INFLATION AND UNEMPLOYMENT“Beca

19、use prices are sticky, various types of government policy have short-run effects that differ from their long-run effects. When the government reduces the quantity of money, for instance, it reduces the amount that people spend. Lower spending, together with prices that are stuck too high, reduces th

20、e quantity of goods and services that firms sell. Lower sales, in turn, cause firms to lay off workers. Thus, the reduction in the quantity of money raises unemployment temporarily until prices have fully adjusted to the change.The tradeoff between inflation and unemployment is only temporary, but i

21、t can last for several years. The Phillips curve is, therefore, crucial for understanding many developments in the economy. In particular, policymakers can exploit this tradeoff using various policy instruments. By changing the amount that the government spends, the amount it taxes, and the amount o

22、f money it prints, policymakers can, in the short run, influence the combination of inflation and unemployment that the economy experiences.”在 ZF 抑制通货膨胀的短期内会造成失业率的增加。当然，如果 ZF 声明说他们成功实现了所谓的软着陆，那意味着通货膨胀得到抑制的同时没有造成失业率大幅增加和其他负面影响。这谈何容易。以上第二段关于 ZF 抑制通胀的一些常见手段很值得玩味。曼昆经济学原理阅读笔记（四）第一个经济学模型：循环流成图（Circular-fl

23、ow Diagram）定义：circular-flow diagram - a visual model of the economy that shows how dollars flow throughmarkets among households and firms.是资源和货币在市场中循环流动的简单图表。第二个经济学模型：生产可能性曲线（production possibilities frontier）定义：a graph that shows the combinations of output that the economy can possibly produce give

24、n the available factors of production and the available production technology.微观经济学（microeconomics）：the study of how households and firms make decisions and how they interact in markets.宏观经济学（macroeconomics）：the study of economy-wide phenomena, including inflation, unemployment, and economic growth.

25、曼昆关于人与人之间的相互依赖（Interdependence）关系的精妙描述：Every day you rely on many people from around the world, most of whom you do not know, to provide you with the goods and services that you enjoy. Such interdependence is possible because people trade with one another. Those people who provide you with goods and

26、 services are not acting out of generosity or concern for your welfare. Nor is some government agency directing them to make what you want and to give it to you. Instead, people provide you and other consumers with the goods and services they produce because they get something in return.可以以这段话为例应用到不

27、同场合来解释我们原本以为需要在形而上层面才能解释的问题。曼昆经济学原理阅读笔记（五）比较优势原理概念：Absolute Advantage(绝对优势): the comparison among producers of a good according to their productivity.opportunity cost(机会成本): whatever must be given up to obtain some parative advantage(比较优势): the comparison among producers of a good according to their

28、 opportunity cost.机会成本和比较优势之间的差异造就了贸易上的收益。曼昆的例子：SHOULD TIGER WOODS MOW HIS OWN LAWN?Tiger Woods spends a lot of time walking around on grass. One of the most talentedgolfers of all time, he can hit a drive and sink a putt in a way that most casualgolfers only dream of doing. Most likely, he is talen

29、ted at other activities too. For example, lets imagine that Woods can mow his lawn faster than anyone else. But just because he can mow his lawn fast, does this mean he should?To answer this question, we can use the concepts of opportunity cost and comparativeadvantage. Lets say that Woods can mow h

30、is lawn in 2 hours. In that same2 hours, he could film a television commercial for Nike and earn $10,000. By contrast,Forrest Gump, the boy next door, can mow Woodss lawn in 4 hours. In thatsame 4 hours, he could work at McDonalds and earn $20.In this example, Woodss opportunity cost of mowing the l

31、awn is $10,000 andForrests opportunity cost is $20. Woods has an absolute advantage in mowinglawns because he can do the work in less time. Yet Forrest has a comparative advantagein mowing lawns because he has the lower opportunity cost.这算是比较优势原理在微观经济学领域应用的例子。比较优势一定是存在的，所以人们只要从事相互间的交易，就一定能从中相互得利。在自由贸易的条件下，人们的商业贸易往来，只有一方得利的情形是罕见的。这就是为什么经济学家们要一致主张自由贸易的原因，这也是为什么我们的国家要积极的参与世贸组织的谈判，争取加入 WTO 的原因。加入 WTO，意味着与他国贸易往来时，双方都会降低或免去进出口关税，消除贸易壁垒，从而使商品的价格降低，最终使两国的消费者得利。而使消费者能够买到尽可能价格低的商品，则是商业的根本目的。斯密在其国民经济的性质和原因的研究中以英国为例在这方面的分析很经典。比如政府的某些看似聪明的为保护本国某项商品而设置高关税，借以阻止外国廉价质优的同类