词汇学9.docx

1、词汇学9 Chapter 9 English IdiomsThe English language abounds in idioms like any other highly developed tongues. Idioms consist of set phrases and short sentences, which are peculiar to the language in question and loaded with the native cultures and ideas. Therefore, idioms are colourful, forcible and

2、thought-provoking. Strictly speaking, idioms are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meanings of individual elements, for example, fly off the handle (become excessively angry) and put up with (tolerate). In a broad sense, idioms may include colloquialisms, catchphrase

3、s, slang expressions, proverbs, etc. They form an important part of the English vocabulary. This chapter will deal with idioms in terms of their characteristics, classification and uses.9.1 Characteristics of Idioms9.1.1 Semantic UnityBeing phrases or sentences, idioms each consist of more than one

4、word, but each is a semantic unity. Though the various words which make up the idiom have their respective literal meanings, in the idiom they have lost their individual identity, i. e . their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom. Likewise, the part of speech of each

5、 element is no longer important. Quite often the idiom functions as one word. For instance, till the cows come home, which comprises a conjunction till, an article the, a noun cow, a verb come and an adverb home, means forever and functions as an adverb, thus replaceable by the word The same can be

6、said of keep in mind (remember), take off (imitate), to no avail (useless), like a breeze (easily) and so on.The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literal meaning of each word and the meaning of the idiom. Many idioms are semantically inexplicable.

7、For example, How do you do is a common form of greeting used by people when they first meet. Literally it means In what way do you do things, which is far from its idiomatic usage. Similarly, wear ones heart upon ones sleeve which means show ones feelings plainly is literally impossible. Rain cats a

8、nd dogs which is used in the sense of rain heavily literally makes nonsense.9.1.2 Structural StabilityUnlike free phrases, the structure of an idiom is to a large extent unchangeable. First, the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced. Take in a brown study for example. Used as a free phrase, we c

9、an say in a brown (red, green, white, etc.) study or in a brown study (room, den, hall, studio, cell, etc.). However, as an idiom to mean deep in thought, the structure is fixed. In the same way, lip service (support only in words, not in fact) is not to be changed into * mouth service; kick the buc

10、ket (die) into * kick the pail or * strike the bucket; bury the hatchet (come to friendly or peaceful terms) into * bury the ax.Secondly, the word order cannot be inverted or changed. For example, by twos and threes and tit for tat are not to be turned into by threes and twos and tat for tit. Simila

11、rly, the lions share is not to be replaced by the share of the lion though it is a common practice in free phrases.Thirdly, the constituents of an idiom cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article. For instance, out of the question means impossible. If the article the is deleted, the idiomati

12、city will be lost and it will signify no question instead. In question (being considered) on the other hand does not allow the addition of the as * in the question, because the latter is no longer an idiom.Finally, many idioms are grammatically unanalysable. For example, diamond cut diamond (two par

13、ties are equally matched) is grammatically incorrect, for normally the verb cut should take the third person singular -s as the subject diamond is singular. Meanwhile there exists a structurally similar idiom Like cures like, in which -s cannot be deleted. (as) sure as eggs is eggs (quite certainly)

14、 may serve as another example. The verb is in the idiom should be are to agree with grammar. However, we use it as it is. It is grammatically wrong, but idiomatic and widely accepted.It should be pointed out that the idiomaticity of idioms is gradable and may best be thought in terms of a scale, wit

15、h the true idioms established at the upper end and regular combinations at the bottom. In between are the semi-idioms (Cowie and Mackin 1975: x). By true idioms we mean that the meaning of the idiom cannot be deduced from those of the individual constituents such as step up used in His promotion ste

16、pped up (improve or enhance)their social status and in the raw used in The boys are playing in the river in the raw (naked). By regular combinations we speak of the regular collocations such as make friends with, break silence and smooth tongue, the meanings of which are understood from the literal

17、meanings of the constituents. In between we have idioms like turn over a new leaf (begin a new life), as cool as a cucumber and draw the curtain (end or conceal), whose meanings are in a way related to the meanings of the constituents but are not themselves explicit. The fixity of idioms depends on

18、the idiomaticity. The more idiomatic the idioms, the more fixed the structure. Many of the idioms of the lower scale do allow some changes. For example, break silence can be changed into keep silence to express the opposite meaning. Put on the coat can be replaced by put it on in the actual context.

19、 These variations of idioms will be discussed in the sections to follow.9.2 Classification of IdiomsClassification can be approached from different angles. Studies on English idioms to this day and various dictionaries of idioms have provided a variety of criteria for classifying idioms. In this boo

20、k, we prefer the criterion of grammatical functions (See Lu 1983). This is because such classification will be more helpful in the actual use of idioms. The difficulty in using idioms appropriately lies first in the difficulty of grasping the elusive and figurative meaning and then in the difficulty

21、 of determining the syntactic functions of idioms. For instance, heart and soul is an idiom made up of two nouns connected by and. It looks like a noun phrase on appearance, but it is in fact used as an adverbial. A knowledge of the grammatical functions of idioms will undoubtedly be beneficial to l

22、earners. By this criterion, idioms may be classified into five groups.9.2.1 Idioms Nominal in NatureIdioms of this class have a noun as the key word in each and function as a noun in sentences, e. g.white elephant a + n (something useless and unwanted but big and costly)brain trust (n + n (a group o

23、f people with special knowledge who answer questions or give advice)flesh and blood n + conj + n (relatives or family)an apple of discord n+ prep + n (cause of disagreement or argument, etc.)Jack of all trades n + prep + det + n (a person who can do many different kinds of work but may not good at a

24、ny of them)fly in the ointment n + prep + n (something that spoils the perfection of something)9.2.2 Idioms Adjectival in NatureAll the idioms listed below function as adjectives but the constituents are not necessarily adjectives, e. g.cut and dried a + a (already settled and unlikely to be changed

25、)as poor as a church mouse as + a + as +n (having, or earning, barely enough money for one s needs)wide of the mark a + prep + n (not at all suitable, correct, etc.)beyond the pale prep +n (beyond the limit of proper behaviour)up in the air adv + prep + n (uncertain)9.2.3 Idioms Verbal in NatureThis

26、 is the largest group of all. The structures of such idioms are quite complex and thus can be subdivided into phrasal verbs and other verb phrases.1. Phrasal verbs are idioms which are composed of a verb plus a prep and/or a particle, e. g.look into vi + prep (investigate)go on vi + adv (continue)pu

27、t off vt + prep/adv (discourage. from; cause. to dislike, etc. / delay; make excuses in order to avoid a duty, etc.)turn on vt + adv (switch on; excite or interest strongly, and often sexually)get away with vi + adv + prep (do something wrong without being punished)put down to vt + adv + prep (state

28、 that something is caused or explained by)2. Other verb phrasesmake it v + pron (arrive in time; succeed)follow ones nose v + poss + n .(go straight ahead, go in the same direction)fall flat v + a (fail completely in its intended or expected effect)give sb the bag v + pron + n (fire or dismiss someb

29、ody) sing a different tune v + a + n (change ones opinion or attitude)call it a day v + pron + n (decide or agree to stop either temporarily or for good)chop and change v + conj + v (fluctuate or vary constantly; keep changing ones opinion, etc.)swim against the stream v + prep phrase (do the opposi

30、te of what most people want to do; go against the way things are happening)come back to earth v + adv + prep phrase (stop imagining or dreaming)make ends meet v + n + v (earn what it costs to live) keep the pot boiling v + n + v-ing (earn enough to maintain an adequate standard of living;keep a situ

31、ation active, amusing, etc.)let the dog see the rabbit v + n + inf (do not get in the way of another who wishes to see or do sth.)bite the hand that feeds one v + n + attr clause (repay kindness with wrong, turn against or hurt a helper or supporter)9.2.4 Idioms Adverbial in Naturetooth and nail n +

32、 n (with great violence and determination)in nothing flat prep + n + a (in a very little time; soon)through thick and thin prep + n + conj + n (through all difficulties and troubles)This class contains numerous prepositional phrases, which in nature are either adjectival or adverbial and in many cases have both functions at the same time. For instance, in clover or in the clover (in rich comfort or having a pleasant or easy life) can be used both as predicative as in