Metacognitive Strategy Training for Vocabulary Learning.docx

1、Metacognitive Strategy Training for Vocabulary LearningMetacognitive Strategy Training for Vocabulary LearningAbstractResearch shows that not all L2 strategy-training studies have been successful or conclusive. Some training has been effective in various skill areas but not in others, even within th

2、e same study (Oxford, 1989). The purpose of the present study was to shed light on the issue o strategy training. We have investigated the effect of metacognitive strategy training through the use of explicit strategy instruction on the development of lexical knowledge of EFL students. To reach the

3、goal of the study two groups of EFL language learners at intermediate language proficiency level were randomly assigned to a control and an experimental group. Both groups received instruction on vocabulary learning strategies through a 10-week period of instruction. However, only the experimental g

4、roup received metacognitive strategy training during the course of the semester. The training model used was based on the framework for direct language learning strategies instruction proposed by Chamot and OMalley (1994). The result of the study showed that explicit metacognitive strategy training

5、has a significant positive effect on the vocabulary learning of EFL students. -1-IntroductionIt has been claimed that successful language learners have their own special ways of doing it. Stern (1975) and Rubin (1975) were probably among the first researchers who brought up the idea of successful la

6、nguage learners. The idea can probably help us with both understanding more about the nature of language learning and also to facilitate the language learning process for others. Since this premise, most of the research in the area of language learning strategies has focused on the identification, d

7、escription, and classification of useful learning strategies. The research has been descriptive with the aim to elicit the useful strategies applied by successful language learners assuming that it could help other learners to become more successful. Rubin (1975), suggested that good L2 learners are

8、 willing and accurate guessers; have a strong drive to communicate; are often uninhibited; are willing to make mistakes; focus on form by looking for patterns and analyzing; take advantage of all practice opportunities; monitor their speech as well as that of others; and pay attention to meaning. Na

9、iman, Frohlich, and Todesco (1975) made a list of strategies used by successful L2 learners, adding that they learn to think in the language and address the affective aspects of language acquisition as well.Learning strategies are defined by OMalley and Chamot (1990) as special thoughts or behaviors

10、 that individuals use to comprehend, learn, or retain new information (p.1). Oxford (1994) defines them as actions, behaviors, steps, or techniques students use, often unconsciously, to improve their progress in apprehending, internalizing, and using the L2 (p.1). In the 1980s and early 90s, researc

11、h mainly focused on categorizing the strategies found in the studies of the previous decade. As a result, several taxonomies were proposed to classify them, including classifications of language learning strategies in general and language sub-skills strategies in particular. OMalley and Chamot (1990

12、), for instance, have divided the strategies into three main branches: cognitive, metacognitive, and socio-affective, each of which includes lots of sub-strategies such as rehearsal, organization, summarizing, deducing, and imagery. On the other hand, Oxford (1990a) has proposed a more comprehensive

13、 model in which six categories, classified into two groups of direct and indirect exist. The direct strategies include memory, cognitive, and compensation while indirect strategies include metacognitive, affective, and social. As Oxford (1990b) mentions, the social and affective strategies are found

14、 less often in L2 research. This is, perhaps, because these behaviors are not studied frequently by L2 researchers, and because learners are not familiar with paying attention to their own feelings and social relationships as part of the L2 learning process.According to OMalley and Chamot (1990), co

15、gnitive (e.g., translating, analyzing) and metacognitive (e.g., planning, organizing) strategies are often used together, supporting each other. The assumption is that using a combination of strategies often has more impact than single strategies. As Graham (1997, pp. 42-43) states, the distinctions

16、 between cognitive and metacognitive strategies are important, partly because they help us to indicate which strategies are the most important in determining the effectiveness of learning. Graham believes that metacognitive strategies, that allow students to plan, control, and evaluate their learnin

17、g, have the most central role to play in improvement of learning. Anderson (2002b) believes that Developing metacognitive awareness may also lead to the development of stronger cognitive skills (p.1). Since metacognitive strategies are the focus of this study, a more detailed discussion on this topi

18、c follows. -2-MetacognitionMetacognition involves active monitoring and consequent regulation and orchestration of cognitive process to achieve cognitive goals (Flavell, 1976, p. 252). Flavell and Wellman (1977), and Flavell (1979) included interpretation of ongoing experience, or simply making judg

19、ments about what one knows or does not know to accomplish a task, as other features of metacognition. Along with the notions of active and conscious monitoring, regulation, and orchestration of thought process, Flavell believed through repeated use of metacognition, it might in time become automatiz

20、ed. Anderson (2002a, p.1) defines metacognition as thinking about thinking. As Anderson states, the use of metacognitive strategies ignites ones thinking and can lead to higher learning and better performance. Furthermore, understanding and controlling cognitive process may be one of the most essent

21、ial skills that teachers can help second language learners develop.Most of the early investigations of metacognition were descriptive in nature in that they sought to describe general developmental patterns of childrens knowledge about memory processes. They were particularly interested in processes

22、 concerned with conscious and deliberate storage and retrieval of information. However, as studies moved from descriptive to empirical, the kinds of methodology expanded, the number of studies increased, and the need for a scheme to classify this growing corpus of literature on metacognition arose.

23、Several classification schemes have been used to group, analyze, and evaluate these strategies (e.g., Flavel, 1976; 1979; Flavell & Wellman, 1977; Kluwe, 1982) and even though there are important differences among them, overall, three general categories consistently appear: cognitive monitoring, cog

24、nitive regulation, and a combination of both. Anderson (2002a), based on previous research, has proposed five main components for metacognition. They include: 1) preparing and planning for learning, 2) selecting and using learning strategies, 3) monitoring strategy use, 4) orchestrating various stra

25、tegies, and 5) evaluating strategy use and learning.By preparation and planning in relation to their learning goal, students think about what their goals are and how they will go about accomplishing them. Students, with the help of the teacher, can set a realistic goal within a set time for accompli

26、shing that goal. Setting clear, challenging, and realistic goals can help students see their own progress and hopefully, by becoming consciously aware of their progress, the students motivation for learning would be increased. The metacognitive ability to select and use particular strategies in a gi

27、ven context for a specific purpose means that the learner can think and make conscious decisions about the learning process. Learners should be taught not only about learning strategies but also about when to use them and how to use them. Students should be instructed on how to choose the best and m

28、ost appropriate strategy in a given situation.The next main component of metacognition is monitoring strategy use. By examining and monitoring their use of learning strategies, students have more chances of success in meeting their learning goals (Anderson, 2002a). Students should be explicitly taug

29、ht that once they have selected and begun to use the specific strategies, they need to check periodically whether or not those strategies are effective and being used as intended. For example, when reading, they can use context to guess the meaning of some unknown vocabulary items. To monitor their

30、use of this strategy, they should pause and check to see if the meaning they guessed makes sense in the text and if not, go back and modify or change their strategy. -3-Knowing how to use a combination of strategies in an orchestrated fashion is an important metacognitive skill. Research has shown t

31、hat successful language learners tend to select strategies that work well together in a highly orchestrated way, tailored to the requirements of the language task (Chamot & Kupper, 1989; Wenden, 1998). These learners can easily explain the strategies they use and why they employ them (OMalley & Cham

32、ot, 1990). Based on Chamot and Kupper (1989), certain strategies or clusters of strategies are linked to particular language skills or tasks. For example, L2 writing, like L1 writing, benefits from the learning strategies of planning, self-monitoring, deduction, and substitution. L2 speaking demands

33、 strategies such as risk-taking, paraphrasing, circumlocution, self-monitoring, and self-evaluation. L2 listening comprehension gains from strategies of elaboration, inferencing, selective attention, and self-monitoring. Reading comprehension uses strategies like reading aloud, guessing, deduction, and summarizing. Research shows th