新科学和技术以及创新在印度的发展外文翻译 学士学位论文.docx

1、新科学和技术以及创新在印度的发展外文翻译 学士学位论文毕业论文（设计）外文翻译外文题目：New Science, Technology and Innovation Developments In India 出 处： Supporting Science & Technology Polices 作 者： PIKAY RICHARDSON 原文:AbstractThis paper reviews the science and technology policies of India and how these have fashioned Indias technology capabi

2、lity over the years. It shows that while India has achieved enormous strides in the area of science, technology and innovation, inappropriate policies in the past have hampered the development of an effective national innovation system. The paper concludes by drawing lessons for the development of a

3、n EU-wide science and technology policy2. Trends in STI Developments in India2.2 Trends in Indias Science and Technology PolicyIt has long been recognized that investment in science and technology makes substantial contribution to economic growth in terms of higher growth rates of an economys total

4、factor productivity (Abramovitz, 1956, Denison 1962 and Solow, 1957, among others). In addition to direct returns, huge (positive) externalities have also been found to be associated with it (Abramovitz, 1989). Taking cognisance of the importance of technologys role in development, advanced countrie

5、s nurture continuing development of science and technology and most developing countries adopt R&D policies in the early phases of their development. Science and Technology policy constitutes an integral part of a nations overall industrial policy (Barber and White, 1987). While the former shapes th

6、e pace and direction of technology development, the latter determines the nature of demand. This section reviews the evolution of Science and Technology policy in India since independence。Science and Technology policy of any nation is carved within the background of overall industrial policy. If any

7、thing, S&T policy is supposed not only to give meaning to, but more importantly, to ensure achievement of the goals of industrial policy. It is therefore the thrust and direction of industrial policy that determines the tenets of any S&T policy, although it must be said that R&D may lead to results

8、that may also change the course of industrial policy. Even so, S&T policy has almost always been driven by the goals of industrial development policy. This section therefore describes the development strategy adopted by the government in the various phases of development and analyses the accompanyin

9、g S&T policy. Two strands of S&T policy have existed policies related to technology transfer from abroad through formal modes such as FDI, technology licensing and capital goods imports and domestic technology generation policies. Having realized that the pursuit of autarkic economic policies in muc

10、h of the post-independence period to 1990 was a mistake, India undertook sweeping reforms as a way of speeding economic growth and achieving faster integration into the world economy. Part of these reforms has been the re-enactment of a science and technology policy more suited to the achievement of

11、 the goals of building a prosperous nation.3. Response to/Impact of Reforms3.2.2 Global R&D CentersHirwani and Jain (1999) have shown that although market-oriented activities were more important to MNEs in most of the 1990s, technology oriented activities are growing in importance. Hitherto, MNEs ha

12、d been emphasizing a strategy of customizing products for the Indian market and of obtaining cost-efficient manufacturing facilities in India. Increasingly, however, there has been a clear move towards obtaining access to high quality scientists, engineers and designers in India. Some R&D centers se

13、t up in India by some MNEs conduct contract research for the corporate laboratories outside India. Prior to 1991, the establishment of such R&D centers by MNEs was consciously lacking. Since India signed the GATT Agreement in 1993 and subsequently passed the Intellectual Property law in 1994, over 6

14、0 MNEs have set up R&D centers in technology intensive industries, mostly to take advantage of the strong pool of highly-trained engineers and scientists. Before 1991, there were only two such centers in the country.Apart from the setting up of new centers in India to take advantage of the liberaliz

15、ed atmosphere, the raison dtre and mode of operation of existing centers have also been changing by the new market environment. Some companies have completely restructured their R&D centers in India, shifting the focus from developing products for Indian markets to making them centers of global exce

16、llence. Others have expanded their. operations and hired many Indian scientists and technologists. This is more evident in the areas of information and computer technology. Such centers conduct R&D for worldwide operations. The availability of high quality labor has been a motivating factor in the e

17、stablishment of centers by companies such as Astra, Unilever, GE and Software Development Centers of Texas Instruments, Oracle, Microsoft and others. Substantial R&D presence has also been established in the areas of pharmaceuticals and biotechnology.3.4 Commercial Orientation of Public Research Org

18、anizationsIndia has a strong industrial research infrastructure, which was fostered in the early stages of its post-independence growth. While the supply-side was generouslysupported, the industrial research system, prior to liberalization, was mostly geared toimport substitution (Bowonder and Richa

19、rdson, 2000). The publicly funded Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and other bodies tended to be isolated entities with little or no links to industry. In such a protected environment, there was no need to benchmark their activities to those of global players. Also their activiti

20、es were only marginally focused on commercialization. The last decade has seen many of these laboratories become more commercially oriented. They have been directing their efforts towards international quality R&D. Two recent major policy thrusts have been (a) an increase in the quest for patenting

21、in Europe and the USA, as a means of engendering a strong desire to undertake R&D and to innovate and (b) an increase in the commercial orientation of industrial research, with a view to making these bodies less dependent on public budgetary support.3.6 FDI Spill-overs and Technological CapabilityLi

22、beralization policies and the response by both foreign and Indian companies alike have had many spillovers that are valuable for Indias technological capability. The growth of the software industry has had wide-ranging impact on the economy. The demand for software imports and the setting up of fore

23、ign development centers have contributed to the rapid increase in compensation levels, estimated at an annual rate of 25% in the second half of the 1990s. Other benefits have included stock options and good employment opportunities, thereby slowing brain drain to some extent. Foreign participation h

24、as exposed Indian engineers and scientists to new technologies and made them more sensitive to the protection of intellectual property (software IP piracy was estimated to have risen from 59% to 61% between 1999 and 2000 ( Krishnan, 2001). Another factor has been the sharp increase in the output of

25、degree- and diploma awarding institutions. The number of institutions offering formal degree-level education in engineering more than doubled between 1990 and 2000, from 339 to 776. Student intake capacity also doubled with 80% rise in the science/engineering places. Although venture capital organiz

26、ations started to emerge in India in 1986, the growth of technology-based ventures did not catch up. In the last decade, however, there has been a substantial rise in IT-based venture capital. Nigam (2001) records that venture capital investments reached $350 million in 2000, as against a figure of

27、less than $5 million in 1995. A large chunk of this amount (70%) was directed into the IT sector. Many new venture capital firms are being set up, either by Indian-based industrialists and young professionals or by Indians based overseas.Although recent studies (Chandrasekhar and Basavarajappa, 2001

28、; Mehta and Sama, 2001) show that there has been little change in R&D intensity of Indian industry, there has been a clear shift toward increased product development and innovation (Krishnan and Prabha, 1999). This has been accompanied by increased awareness of intellectual property (IP) rights and,

29、 by implication, the importance of patenting. According to the US Patent Office, of the ten India-based organizations which filed the largest number of US patents in the 1995-2000 period, three are Indian pharmaceutical companies. The CSIR has also been filing patents in India and the US, all this r

30、esult of new outward-looking policies.4. Science and Technology Policy in Relation to the Multilateral SystemIndia is a founder member of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) 1947 and its successor, the World Trade Organisation (WTO), which came into effect on January 1 1995, after the

31、conclusion of the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negotiations. Indias participation is based on the need to ensure more stability and predictability in international trade with a view to achieving more trade and prosperity for itself and the other members of the WTO. The multilateral trading sy

32、stem administered by the WTO aims to bring about orderliness, transparency and predictability in global trade through reductions in tariffs, progressive removal of non-tariff barriers, elimination of trade-distorting measures and systems of values to serve as guidelines for national legislation to b

33、ring about uniformity in laws and regulations everywhere.The establishment of the WTO has created a forum for continuous negotiations to reconcile differing and oftentimes conflicting interests of members. Although there is unanimity in the provisions of International Trade theory that free trade enhances global welfare, nationalism a