简明语言学整理笔记.docx

1、简明语言学整理笔记精品文档 第一章 1.linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language 2The scope of linguistics Phonetics-语音学 phonology-音系学 morphology-形态学 syntax-句法学 semantics-语义学 pragmatics-语用学 从语言形式划分： Sociolinguistics社会语言学，psycholinguistics心理语言学，applied linguistics应用语言学 3. Important distinctio

2、ns in linguistics Descriptive & prescriptive 规定性&描写性 Synchronic & diachronic 共时性&历时性 Speech& writing 口语&书写 Langue & parole 语言&言语 Competence &language fact ) Traditional grammer & modern linguistics 4.What is language? Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication 5.Des

3、ign features of language 语言的识别特征 Charles Hockett Arbitrariness(任意性)refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings) Productivity/creativity(能产性）:Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new sig

4、nals by its users Duality（双重性）:The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. Displacement(移位性):Human Languages enable their users to symbolize ob

5、jects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication. Cultural transmission（文化传承性）人独有。动物为基因传承 6.Functions of language Main function： Descreptive function 描述功能，expressive function表达功能，social function社会功能 6 basic function （Roman Jakobson） addresser-Emotive (情

6、感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of the speaker addressee-Conative（意动功能） Context-referential（指称功能） .message-poetic（诗性功能）. contact-Phatic communion(寒暄交流) Metalingual function(元语言功能): Halliday child language： the ideational 概念功能，the interpersonal交际功能，the textual语篇功能 第二章Phology语音学 Three branches

7、：articulatory phonetics 发音语言学，auditory phonetics 听觉语音学，acoustic phonetics声学语音学。 精品文档精品文档 Organs of speech：pharyngeal cavity咽腔:voiced浊辅音，voiceless清辅音 oral cavity口腔， nasal cavity鼻腔。Broad&narrow transcription classification of english speech sound： phonology音系学名词解释 Phonetics语音学 is of general nature; it

8、 is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified Phonology 音系学aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns, and

9、 how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. A phone音素- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme音位- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a parti

10、cular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in peak and speak. Allophones音位变体 - the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments. (complementary distribution互补分布) e.g. the phoneme l i

11、n English can be realized as dark l, clear l, which are allophones of the phoneme l. Phonemic contrast音位对立-two different or distinctive phonemes are in phonemic contrast, e.g./b/ and /p/ in bIt and pIt. Complementary distribution互补分布-allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution.

12、They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts, e.g. dark l & clear l, aspirated p & unaspirated p. Minimal pair最小对立体- when two different forms are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound

13、combinations are said to form a minimal pair, e.g. Some rules in phonelogy Sequential rules 序列规则 Assimilation rule 同化规则 Deletion rule省略规则 Suprasegmental features超音段特征 stress ，tone，intonation 第三章Morphology（形态学）: refer to the part of the grammar that is concerned with formation and word structure. Clo

14、sed class words: conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns consist of the “grammatical” or “functional” words. Words - the smallest free form found in language. Morpheme - the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function. Phoneme音位 : the smallest meaningful un

15、it of sound: /p, b/ Morpheme词素 : the smallest meaningful unit in grammar: -s, a-, -less un- Free morpheme自由词素-is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself Bound morpheme黏着词素-is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can 精品文档精品文档 not stand by themselves Allomorph词素变体 -

16、morphemes may have different forms. (:a and an.) The variant forms of a morpheme are said to be the allomorphs of the morpheme Root - the core of the words that carries the major components of meaning. Affix - bound morphemes. Prefix - morphemes that occur only before others Suffix - morphemes that

17、occur only after others Root-A root is that part of the word left when all the affixes (inflectional & derivational) are removed Stem-A stem is part of a word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed, Base-A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added. This m

18、eans any stem and root can be termed as a base. Derivational morphemes派生词素 - the morphemes which can change the category, or grammatical class of words Inflectional morphemes屈折词素- the bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, c

19、ase and so on, (tables, talked, Johns) morphological rules- the ways words are formed. 能产性词法规则 productive morphological rulesDerivation(派生法) - an affixation process that forms a word with a meaning and/ or category from that of its bases. Compounds(合成法) 第四章Syntax（句法）- the rules that govern the forma

20、tion of sentences. Category（范畴）- refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language syntactic categories -A fundamental fact about words in human languages is that they can be grouped into a relative small number. The most central categories to

21、 the syntactic study are the word-level categories (traditionally, parts of speech) Major lexical categories主要词法范畴: n., v., adj., Prep. Minor Lexical categories次要词法范畴: det.(a,the,), deg.(修饰介词，形容词so,very), Qual.(修饰动词often，almost), Aux(must, should), Conj.(and, but ,or ) Three criteria on which catego

22、ries are determined: meaning, inflection and distribution. Phrase - the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category. The structure of phrases: specifier标志语 + head 中心词 + complement 补语 Head- the word around which a phrase is formed Specifier- the words on the left side of the heads C

23、omplement- the words on the right side of the heads A phrase structure rule短语结构规则- The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase 1) The XP rule XP规则 (specifier )X( complement) 2) Coordination rule 并列规则- the structures that are formed by joining two or mor

24、e elements 精品文档精品文档 of the same type with the help of a conjunction. XP (Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod) Modifiers 修饰语 S ? NP VP Infl is an abstract category inflection (dubbed Infl) as their heads, which indicates the sentences tense（时态） and agreement（一致）.( Infl. -will, Pst). Auxiliary movement (

25、inversion) -A transformation, a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another, which is known as inversion倒置. The auxililary moves from the head Infl position in Infl P into the head C position in CP. Such type of inversion operation involving the movement of a word from

26、 the head position in one phrase into the head position in another is known as head movement中心词移位. Do insertion （do插入）- Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position. 第五章 semantics语义学 Semantics-the study of language meaning. What is meaning? Meaning is central to the study of communication. So

27、me views： Naming theory (Plato) - Words are names or labels for things. The conceptualist view（Ogden and Richards: semantic triangle） The symbol or form refers to the linguistic elements (words and phrases);The referent refers to the object in the world of experience;Thought or reference refers to c

28、oncept. Contextualism （JR Firth） 1. Situational context场景语境: spatiotemporal 时空的 situation2. Linguistic context: co-text互文，the probability of a words co-occurrence or collocation. Behaviorism（Bloomfield） Lexical meaning：名词解释 Sense- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is

29、the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. Reference-what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element a

30、nd the non-linguistic world of experience. Major sense relations 1) Synonymy同义关系 ：Dialectal synonyms方言同义词，Stylistic synonyms-文体同义词，differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning: the same meaning but different emotions:， Collocational synonyms搭配同义词，Semantically different synonyms,语义程度不同 2) Polysemy一词

31、多义 3) Homonymy 同形同音异义关系 4) Hyponymy 上下位关系 等级反义词， old-young：Gradable antonymsComplementary 义关系）5 Antonymy 反互补反义词，关系反义词wife-husband male-femaleantonymsRelational opposites Sense relations between sentences 同义 1) X is synonymous with Y不一致 X is inconsistent with Y 2) 蕴含 X entails Y 3) 精品文档精品文档 预设 4) X presupposes Y 矛盾 5) X is a contradiction语义反常 6) X is semantically anomalous Analysis of meaning Componential