HowtoReadaScientificPaper如何阅读科学性论文Word格式文档下载.docx

1、How do I prepare to read a paper, particularly in an area not so familiar to me?3.What difficulties can I expect?4.How do I understand and evaluatethe contents of the paper?1. Organization of a paperIn most scientific journals, scientific papers follow a standard format. They are divided into severa

2、l sections, and each section serves a specific purpose in the paper. We first describe the standard format, then some variations on that format.A paper begins with a shortSummaryorAbstract. Generally, it gives a brief background to the topic; describes concisely the major findings of the paper; and

3、relates these findings to the field of study. As will be seen, this logical order is also that of the paper as a whole.The next section of the paper is theIntroduction. In many journals this section is not given a title. As its name implies, this section presents the background knowledge necessary f

4、or the reader to understand why the findings of the paper are an advance on the knowledge in the field. Typically, the Introduction describes first the accepted state of knowledge in a specialized field; then it focuses more specifically on a particular aspect, usually describing a finding or set of

5、 findings that led directly to the work described in the paper. If the authors are testing a hypothesis, the source of that hypothesis is spelled out, findings are given with which it is consistent, and one or more predictions are given. In many papers, one or several major conclusions of the paper

6、are presented at the end of this section, so that the reader knows the major answers to the questions just posed. Papers more descriptive or comparative in nature may begin with an introduction to an area which interests the authors, or the need for a broader database.The next section of most papers

7、 is theMaterials and Methods. In some journals this section is the last one. Its purpose is to describe the materials used in the experiments and the methods by which the experiments were carried out. In principle, this description should be detailed enough to allow other researchers to replicate th

8、e work. In practice, these descriptions are often highly compressed, and they often refer back to previous papers by the authors.The third section is usuallyResults. This section describes the experiments and the reasons they were done. Generally, the logic of the Results section follows directly fr

9、om that of the Introduction. That is, the Introduction poses the questions addressed in the early part of Results. Beyond this point, the organization of Results differs from one paper to another. In some papers, the results are presented without extensive discussion, which is reserved for the follo

10、wing section. This is appropriate when the data in the early parts do not need to be interpreted extensively to understand why the later experiments were done. In other papers, results are given, and then they are interpreted, perhaps taken together with other findings not in the paper, so as to giv

11、e the logical basis for later experiments.The fourth section is theDiscussion. This section serves several purposes. First, the data in the paper are interpreted; that is, they are analyzed to show what the authors believe the data show. Any limitations to the interpretations should be acknowledged,

12、 and fact should clearly be separated from speculation. Second, the findings of the paper are related to other findings in the field. This serves to show how the findings contribute to knowledge, or correct the errors of previous work. As stated, some of these logical arguments are often found in th

13、e Results when it is necessary to clarify why later experiments were carried out. Although you might argue that in this case the discussion material should be presented in the Introduction, more often you cannot grasp its significance until the first part of Results is given.Finally, papers usually

14、have a shortAcknowledgementssection, in which various contributions of other workers are recognized, followed by aReferencelist giving references to papers and other works cited in the text.Papers also contain severalFiguresandTables. These contain data described in the paper. The figures and tables

15、 also have legends, whose purpose is to give details of the particular experiment or experiments shown there. Typically, if a procedure is used only once in a paper, these details are described in Materials and Methods, and the Figure or Table legend refers back to that description. If a procedure i

16、s used repeatedly, however, a general description is given in Materials and Methods, and the details for a particular experiment are given in the Table or Figure legend.Variations on the organization of a paperIn most scientific journals, the above format is followed. Occasionally, the Results and D

17、iscussion are combined, in cases in which the data need extensive discussion to allow the reader to follow the train of logic developed in the course of the research. As stated, in some journals, Materials and Methods follows the Discussion. In certain older papers, the Summary was given at the end

18、of the paper.The formats for two widely-read journals,ScienceNature, differ markedly from the above outline. These journals reach a wide audience, and many authors wish to publish in them; accordingly, the space limitations on the papers are severe, and the prose is usually highly compressed. In bot

19、h journals, there are no discrete sections, except for a short abstract and a reference list. InScience, the abstract is self-contained; inNature, the abstract also serves as a brief introduction to the paper. Experimental details are usually given either in endnotes （forScience） or Figure and Table

20、 legends and a short Methods section （inNature）. Authors often try to circumvent length limitations by putting as much material as possible in these places. In addition, an increasingly common practice is to put a substantial fraction of the less-important material, and much of the methodology, into

21、 Supplemental Data that can be accessed online.Many other journals also have length limitations, which similarly lead to a need for conciseness. For example, theProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences（PNAS） has a six-page limit;Cellseverely edits many papers to shorten them, and has a short

22、word limit in the abstract; and so on.In response to the pressure to edit and make the paper concise, many authors choose to condense or, more typically, omit the logical connections that would make the flow of the paper easy. In addition, much of the background that would make the paper accessible

23、to a wider audience is condensed or omitted, so that the less-informed reader has to consult a review article or previous papers to make sense of what the issues are and why they are important. Finally, again, authors often circumvent page limitations by putting crucial details into the Figure and T

24、able legends, especially when （as inPNAS） these are set in smaller type. Fortunately, the recent widespread practice of putting less-critical material into online supplemental material has lessened the pressure to compress content so drastically, but it is still a problem for older papers.Back to ou

25、tline2. Reading a scientific paperAlthough it is tempting to read the paper straight through as you would do with most text, it is more efficient to organize the way you read. Generally, you first read the Abstract in order to understand the major points of the work. The extent of background assumed

26、 by different authors, and allowed by the journal, also varies as just discussed.One extremely useful habit in reading a paper is to read the Title and the Abstract and, before going on, review in your mind what you know about the topic. This serves several purposes. First, it clarifies whether you

27、in fact know enough background to appreciate the paper. If not, you might choose to read the background in a review or textbook, as appropriate.Second, it refreshes your memory about the topic. Third, and perhaps most importantly, it helps you as the reader integrate the new information into your pr

28、evious knowledge about the topic. That is, it is used as a part of the self-education process that any professional must continue throughout his/her career.If you are very familiar with the field, the Introduction can be skimmed or even skipped. As stated above, the logical flow of most papers goes

29、straight from the Introduction to Results; accordingly, the paper should be read in that way as well, skipping Materials and Methods and referring back to this section as needed to clarify what was actually done. A reader familiar with the field who is interested in a particular point given in the A

30、bstract often skips directly to the relevant section of the Results, and from there to the Discussion for interpretation of the findings. This is only easy to do if the paper is organized properly.CodewordsMany papers contain shorthand phrases that we might term codewords, since they have connotatio

31、ns that are generally not explicit. In many papers, not all the experimental data are shown, but referred to by （data not shown）. This is often for reasons of space; the practice is accepted when the authors have documented their competence to do the experiments properly （usually in previous papers）. Two other codewords are unpublished data and preliminary data. The former can eith