纳米粒子二氧化钛防晒霜Word下载.docx

1、社会实验。防晒霜。二氧化钛（二氧化钛）的不确定性。紫外线保护AbstractThe risks of novel technologies, such as nano（bio）technology cannot be fully assessed due to the existing uncertainties surrounding their introduction into society. Consequently, the introduct ion of innovative technologies can be conceptualised as a societal ex

2、periment, which is a helpful approach to evaluate moral acceptability. This approach is illustrated with the marketing of sunscreens containing nano-sized titanium dioxide （TiO2） particles. We argue that the marketing of this TiO2 nanomaterial in UV protective cosmetics is ethically undesirable,sinc

3、e it violates four reason able moral conditions for societal experimentation （ absence of alternatives,controllability, limited informed consent, and continuing evaluation） . To remedy the current way nano-sized TiO2 containing sunscreens are utilised, we suggest five complementing actions （closing

4、the gap,setup monitoring tools, continuing review, designing for safety, and regulative improvements ） so that its marketing can become more acceptable.风险的新技术,如纳米（生物）技术不能进行完全评估由于现有的不确定性它们引入社会。因此,引进离子的创新技术可以作为一个社会实验,概念化这是一个有用的方法来评估道德可接受性。这种方法体现营销的防晒霜含纳米二氧化钛（二氧化钛粒子。我们认为,市场营销的二氧化钛纳米材料在紫外线防护化妆品在伦理上不受欢迎的

5、,因为它违反了四个原因能道德社会实验条件（缺乏替代品,可控性,有限的知情同意,和持续的评价）。解决当前的方法是利用纳米二氧化钛包含防晒霜,我们建议五补充操作（缩小差距,设置监控工具,持续的审查,设计安全、规范的改进）,以便其营销可以变得更加可以接受。IntroductionThe current debate about the impact of nanoparticles on environ mental, health, and safety （EHS） issues is frustrated by the high level of discord surrounding nano

6、te chnology . Part of the confusion started with the rhetoric used to promote nanotechnology and heralding the novel technology as the next industrial revolution . After warnings from environmentalists and civil activists groups （CAGs） the tone changed and nanotechnology was portrayed not as a revol

7、ution, but more as a gradual evolution of science and engineering. Nonetheless, the novelty of nanotechnology was claimed to emerge from the unique properties of known materials at the nano-scale. This claimed to concerns that the risk profile of such material could also be unique and so additional

8、as well as new safety measures ought to be taken. In turn, this even lead some CAGs to demand severe precautionary measures including a total mora torium on nanotechnology. In the middle of this debate the confusion was increased by agencies that are responsible to advice on the toxicity level of us

9、ed substances.当前的辩论的影响纳米颗粒在环绕精神、健康和安全（EHS）问题是受到高水平的不和周围的nanote论述。部分的混乱始于修辞用来促进纳米技术和预示着新技术作为下一次工业革命。从环保人士警告后和公民活动家团体（CAGs）和纳米技术的音调变化不是作为革命描绘,但更多的是一种循序渐进的进化的科学和工程。尽管如此,新奇的纳米技术是声称摆脱的独特的性质,已知的材料在纳米级。这个声称担心风险预测这样的材料也可能是独特的,所以额外的和新的安全措施应该采取。在反过来,这个甚至让一些CAGs需求严重的预防措施包括在纳米技术总莫拉延期进行。在这场辩论的中间的混乱是增加了机构,负责建议毒性物

10、质水平的使用。For example, the International Agency of Research on Cancer （IARC） classified titaniumdioxide （TiO2） as a possible human carcinogenin group 2B 12, while the hazards of nano -sized TiO2 in sunscreen applications were fiercely debated.However, the IARC recognised that TiO2 particles are being u

11、sed in various sizes （nano and fine-sized particles）, though the agency does not make this size distinction for the given classification. The agency increased the discord further by basing the classification on the results of animal experiments and indicating in its conclusions that human epidemiolo

12、gical cohort studies to support this classification suffer from methodological limitations.The discord in the current nanotechnology debate is not solely the result of communication issues such as rhetoric, mix-ups, hype, over-claiming and misunderstandings. The debate is also highly technical, hete

13、rogeneous, and plagued by uncertainty. The diversity of the field becomes apparent by comparing, for example, the buckminsterfullerene C60, carbon nanotubes, silver nanoparticles and quantum dots. These examples represent just a few groups of nanomaterials and already they have very varied uses and

14、risk profiles.This diversity is further increased by the many different ways in which these various nanomaterials can be functionalised for specific applications. For example, doping or coating these nanomaterials will give them other functional properties and also different risk profiles. The diver

15、sity of the nanotechnological field is even larger than only products that contain nanomaterials .The technology can also be applied to use nanomaterials to fabricate products that do not contain nanoparticles themselves.As a result of this diverse nature of nanotechnology, it is nearly impossible t

16、o make general claims about EHS issues of nanotechnology, nor is it possible to make such claims on nanoparticle groups （such as nano-sized TiO2 particles ） due to their heterogeneity.Therefore, different nanomaterials and their applications should be analysed on a case-by-case basis.Besides the div

17、ersity of the nanotechnological field and its applicatons, the debate on EHS aspects is also greatly affected by the uncertainties that surround nanotechnology. As a result of these uncertainties, it is at the moment, generally acknowledged that we do not know enough about nanomaterials to claim tha

18、t they are safe. At the same time, due to the same uncertainties, the opposite claim of certain dangerousness can also not be made credibly. The general public is highly apprehensive about these uncertainties and EHS researchers are giving guarded answers due to the same uncertainties, it seems clea

19、r that most parties in the debate ask for more research into EHS issues . However, it is still unclear how much data is needed to give a final and credible answer to these issues. Dealing with the uncertainties of the possible implication of novel technologies,such as nanotechnology,seems necessary

20、for a more meaningful deliberation about their introduction into society.例如,国际癌症研究机构（IARC）分类钛 二氧化碳（二氧化钛）作为一个可能的人类致癌物的2 b组-12,而纳米大小的二氧化钛的危害在防晒霜应用程序被激烈地辩论。然而,国家癌症研究机构认识到,二氧化钛颗粒被用于各种大小（纳米和细大小的粒子）,尽管该机构不会使这个大小区别给定分类。该机构增加了进一步通过基于不和的分类结果的动物实验,表明在其结论,人类流行病学队列研究,以支持这种分类遭受方法论上的局限。在当前纳米技术的纷争辩论不单单是沟通问题的结果如修辞学

21、、混乱、炒作,下意识和误解。这场争论也高度技术性的、异构的和不确定性的困扰。该领域的多样性成为明显的对比,例如,巴克敏斯特富勒烯C60,碳纳米管、纳米银粒子和量子点。这些例子仅仅代表几组纳米材料和他们已经非常多样的用途和风险概况。这种多样性是进一步增加了许多不同的方式functionalised这些不同的纳米材料可以为特定的应用程序。例如,掺杂或涂层这些纳米材料将给予其他的功能性质和也不同的风险概况。纳米领域的多样性甚至比只有产品含有纳米材料。这种技术也可以应用到使用纳米材料制造产品,不含纳米颗粒本身。由于这个多样化的自然纳米技术,这是几乎不可能让通用声称EHS问题的纳米技术,也不太可能让这种

22、说法纳米粒子的组（如纳米二氧化钛粒子）由于其非均质性。因此,不同的纳米材料及其应用程序应该逐个地分析。除了纳米领域的多样性及其作用,辩论在EHS方面也大大影响的不确定因素,围绕纳米技术。由于这些不确定性,这是目前普遍承认,我们没有充分了解纳米材料声称他们是安全的。同时,由于同样的不确定性,相反的索赔的某些危险也可以不以可靠的。公众是高度担心这些不确定性和EHS研究人员正在给谨慎回答由于同样的不确定性,看来多数政党在辩论中要求更多研究EHS问题。然而,目前尚不清楚需要多少数据给一个最后的和可信的回答这些问题。应对不确定性的可能涵义的新颖的技术,如纳米技术,似乎有必要进行更有意义的慎重考虑它们引入

23、社会。Titanium DioxideThe ethical aspect s of the EHS issues surrounding nanoparticles in light of uncertainty will be illustrated by a case study on nanoparticles made primarily of titanium dioxide （TiO2） used as a UV protector in cosmetic sunscreens. Nano-sized TiO2 is different from the well-known m

24、icronized form that is used for its clear white appearance as a pigment in coatings, paints, cosmetics, paper, and food stuffs. This large-sized form of TiO2 is known as titanium white or pigment white 6 for pigment applications, while it is often referred to as E171 in food applications. In contras

25、t TiO2 nanoparticles have various interesting electrical and optical properties that can be utilized in commercial applications. The photocatalytic properties of nano-sized TiO2 are used in the photodegradation of pollutants, treatment of wastewater, and destruction of tumour cells. These applicatio

26、ns mostly rely on the ability of TiO2 nanoparticles to form reactive oxygen species （ROS） on its surface when excited with UV light. There are also investigations into the use of its catalytic properties for the production of hydrogen. Nano-sized TiO2 also has photovoltaic properties which can be us

27、ed in cells for producing electricity from light, while its super hydrophilicity can be applied in self-cleaning windows and ceramics. The electrochromatography qualities of TiO2 nanoparticles can potentially be applied in windows that colour when a small voltage is applied, while its ability to abs

28、orb substances has been investigated for hydrogen storage and sensing applications. Finally,the light scattering and absorption properties of nano-sized TiO2 can be used for UV protection in applications such as paints, plastics, and cosmetic sunscreens.二氧化钛伦理方面的EHS问题周围年代纳米颗粒在光的不确定性将会说明了一个案例研究纳米粒子的主

29、要由二氧化钛（二氧化钛）用作紫外线保护器在化妆品的防晒霜。纳米二氧化钛不同于著名的微缩形式,用于其清晰的白色外观作为颜料在涂料、油漆、化妆品、纸、和食品。这个大型形式的二氧化钛被称为钛白或色素白6颜料的应用程序,而这通常被称为E171在食品中的应用。相比之下二氧化钛纳米粒子有各种有趣的电子和光学特性,它可以用在商业应用程序。纳米二氧化钛的光催化性能的用于光降解污染物,废水的治理、破坏肿瘤细胞。这些应用程序主要是依靠二氧化钛纳米粒子的能力形成活性氧（ROS）在其表面与紫外线兴奋时。也有调查其催化性能的使用对氢气的生产过程。纳米二氧化钛也有光伏属性,可用于发电细胞从光,而其超亲水性可以应用在“自我

30、清洁的windows和陶瓷。二氧化钛纳米粒子的电色谱的品质可以被应用在windows中,色彩当施加一个较小的电压,而它能够吸收物质已被调查的储氢和遥感应用程序。最后,光散射和吸收特性的纳米二氧化钛可以用于紫外线保护应用程序,如油漆、塑料和化妆品的防晒霜。For the case study in this paper, we focus on the cosmetic sunscreen utilisation of TiO2 nanoparticles. The nano-sized particles are used in sunscreens as an alternative to

31、existing chemical UV absorbers, such as p-aminobenzoic acid and benzophenone, which can cause allergic reactions in sensitive individuals. Sunscreen lotions are generally marketed as cosmetic products in most countries including the European Union. In the United States however, sunscreens are treate

32、d as over-the-counter （OTC） drugs under over-sight of the US Food and Drug Administration （FDA）.为案例研究在本文中,我们集中在化妆品防晒利用二氧化钛纳米颗粒。纳米粒子的使用防晒霜来代替现有的化学紫外线吸收剂,如对氨基苯酸和苯甲酮,能引起过敏反应在敏感个体。防晒乳液一般市场化妆品在大多数国家包括欧盟。然而在美国,防晒霜被视为OTC药物在眼前下的美国食品和药物管理局（FDA）。This specific utilisation of nano-sized TiO2 was selected since it has already been marketed for over a decade and has become one of the most widely-used examples