Learners FactorsWord格式文档下载.docx

1、* Affective variables* Personality variables* Learning style* AgeThe previous units have concentrated on the description of the universal aspects of human learning and sough to explain how learners perceive, filter, store and recall information in L2 acquisition. However, they do not account for ind

2、ividual learner variables, which influence learning outcomes. Most of us have had the common experience that a group of learners had the same teacher and followed the same textbook, but very different levels of success were reached by individuals in the class at the end of the training program. What

3、 exactly are the variables that make the difference? In the past 20 or 30 years, applied linguists have given a great deal of attention to trying to identify them and have shown that a host of learner characteristics are responsible for, not all, but at least part of ones success or failure in learn

4、ing .The variables that contribute to individual differences are usually divided into three broad categories. Intelligence and aptitude are called cognitive variable, meaning that they relate to the mental makeup of the person. Motivation and attitudes are called affective variables, meaning that th

5、ey are related to feelings. Extroversion or introversion is the typical example of personality variables. This unit makes an attempt to discuss those variables which are particular to L2 learning. Cognitive variations in learning styles that differ across individuals, and learning strategies used by

6、 individuals to deal with particular problems in particular contexts have also attracted a lot of attention in L2 learning research and made considerable advances in recent years. The results of the research are discussed separately in this unit.Learners cognitive variations, affective states and pe

7、rsonal characteristics are likely to have a direct effect on L2 learning, but they themselves may be influenced by some more general factors relating to learners ability and desire to learn a second language. Age is the variable that has been most frequently considered in discussions of individual d

8、ifferences in L2 learning. This is due to the ease with which it can be measured reliably and precisely, and due to the commonly held belief that children are better language learners than adults. Age is an important issue for theory building in L2 learning research, for educational policy-making an

9、d for language pedagogy. This unit is to highlight the key elements of the age issue by examining the effects of age, and the hypotheses and explanations about these effects.Cognitive variablesIntelligenceIn the early 20th century, intelligence was considered an important factor for foreign language

10、 learning. It was also believed that foreign language learning actually helped to develop intelligence, and even today some people insist that learning Latin helps build intellectual powers even if it may not be a useful language to know.Traditionally, intelligence is defined and measured in terms o

11、f linguistic and logical-mathematical abilities. It was proposed in Ausubels meaningful learning model（1968） that high intelligence would no doubt imply a very efficient process of storing items that are particularly useful in building conceptual hierarchies and systematically pruning those that are

12、 not useful. In 1983, H. Gardner gave a more comprehensive picture of intelligence and maintained that the definition lf intelligence should broadly include seven different aspects: linguistic abilities; logical-mathematical abilities; spatial intelligence （the ability to find ones way around an env

13、ironment, to form mental images of reality and to transform them readily）; musical intelligence （the ability to perceive and create pitch and rhythmic patterns）; bodily-kinesthetic intelligence （fine motor movement, athletic prowess）;interpersonal intelligence （the ability to understand others, how

14、they feel, what motivates them, how they interact with one another）; and intrapersonal intelligence（ the ability to see oneself, to develop a sense of self-identity）. From the broad definition of intelligence, we can easily discern that intelligence refers to the underlying ability to learn and to u

15、se various academic skills. This general intelligence is usually abbreviated to g.To what extent, however, does the g factor influence L2 learning? Gardners notion of intelligence is of crucial importance to second language success. Musical intelligence could explain the relative ease that some lear

16、ners have in perceiving and producing the intonation patterns of a language. Bodily-kinesthetic modes are connected with the learning of the phonology of a language. Interpersonal intelligence is of importance in the communicative process. Intrapersonal factors such as motivation, attitude and perso

17、nality may have definite impact on second language learning . During the process of L1 acquisition, intelligence is not found as a decisive factor, except for mentally retarded children. Most children are able to get complete grammar knowledge. From this point, we could say that intelligence is also

18、 not a decisive factor in foreign language acquisition. However, some researchers suggest that intelligence tests can predict success in L2 learning and others believe that there is some separate, special mental construct that determines our aptitude for language learning.In 1979, Commins offered a

19、more sophisticated explanation of the connection between intelligence and L2 proficiency. He distinguishes two kinds of language ability that all native speakers of a language may have. The first is called Cognitive/Academic Language Proficiency （CALP） and the second is termed Basic Interpersonal Co

20、mmunication Skill （BICS）. CALP involves recognizing the linguistic forms of the language and how they relate to one another in longer sequences of spoken or written text. Levels of CALP are judged by the native speakers linguistic knowledge of the language and their ability to use this knowledge pre

21、cisely and flexibly. Evidence of such CALP ability can be provided by the competence one shows in doing language tests and exercises, and by the proficiency with which individuals are able to produce longer written assignments or dissertations. Proficiency at this type of language use is affected by

22、 a persons g , and native speakers have this ability to different extents in their L1. BICS are skills which determine oral fluency and the ability to use language appropriately to communicate. They are basic in the sense that they are developed naturally. All normal native speakers have this abilit

23、y and it is unaffected by an individuals g. According to Cummins, these two kinds of abilities are interdependent and take effect in both native language and foreign language learning. Different measures of language proficiency are likely to use both abilities in varying proportions.Cummins distinct

24、ion between CALP and BICS explains a number of research findings. For instance, Genesee experiment （1976） found that intelligence was strongly related to the development of academic L2 French language skills （ reading, grammar and vocabulary）, but not related to oral proficiency. It seems that tests

25、 of general intelligence may be able to predict eventual L2 proficiency in CALP-like areas of language, but not in those requiring BICS ability. In 1969, Chastain compared IQ scores with the achievement results of students learning a foreign language by two different methods, audiolingualism and cog

26、nitive code. Chastain reported a significant correlation when students were taught by the cognitive code method which emphasized deductive reasoning skills, but none when students were taught by the audio-lingual method that emphasized habit formation.It is difficult for us to know how much intellig

27、ence influences foreign language learning, because giving an accurate definition is not an easy job. Intelligence may be a powerful predictor of success in the L2 classroom, when this consists of formal teaching methods, but much less in naturalistic L2 acquisition, when L2 knowledge is developed th

28、rough learning how to communicate in the target language.AptitudeAptitude refers to the special ability involved in language learning. Language aptitude is thought to be a combination of various abilities in language learning. The term was originally created by John Carroll, a psychologist who devel

29、oped a test called The Language Aptitude Test to predict performance of students in foreign language learning. Carroll identified four independent abilities constituting L2 learning talent:（1） Phonetic coding abilitythe ability to identify distinct sounds, to form associations between sounds and the

30、 symbols that represent them and to retain these associations. This ability is seen as related to the ability to spell and to handle soundsymbol relationships.（2） Grammatical sensitivitythe ability to recognize the grammatical function of words in sentence contexts.（3） Inductive language learning ab

31、ilitythe ability to identify patterns of correspondence and relations between form and meaning.（4） Rote learning ability the the ability to form and remember associations between stimuli. This ability is hypothesized to be involved in vocabulary learning. Two of the best known tests are the Modern L

32、anguage Aptitude Test （MLAT for short） and the Language Aptitude Battery（LAB for short）. The MLAT consists of five subtests: Number learning; Phonetic script; Spelling clues; Words in sentences and Paired associates. Phonetic coding ability is chiefly measured by the “ phonetic script” subtest, which tests both soundsymbol association and auditory discrimination, and grammatical sensitivity is tested by the “words in sentences” subtest, which tests the ability to recognize the function of words in the sentence. P. Pimsleur （1966）