工商管理英语第二章翻译Word文件下载.docx

1、 the judicial rule therefore becomes increasingly a matter of interpreting statutes.英美法系国家包括美国、英国和英国前殖民地。英美法系的主要特征是对司法判决的依赖，这是解决当前案件的优先决定权。然而，近年来，这些国家正在通过更多的立法，司法规则因此变得越来越成为一个解释法规的问题。 Civil law countries ,such as France, Spain and Germany ,base their system on comprehensive ,legal codes that grew ou

2、t of the roman Justinian code . Most Latin American countries have adopted this system. The role of court decisions,is minimized, although this is changing sd these systems are influenced by court decision in common law countries.大陆法系国家，如法国，西班牙和德国，为系统全面，法律规范了罗马查士丁尼法典。大多数拉丁美洲国家都采用了这个系统。法院判决的作用最小化，虽然这

3、是变化的标清这些系统的影响，在普通法国家的法院判决。The socialist system is based on the teachings of Karl Marx and his followers . After the Russian revolution of 1917 ,the czarist system was replace by a system of peoples courts staffed mostly by members of the communist party . Eventually , formal legal codes ,civil and c

4、riminal,（similar to civil law system） were developed.社会主义制度是建立在马克思卡尔和他的追随者的教义的基础上的。1917俄国革命之后，沙皇制度是由人民法院工作人员大多由共产党员的系统取代。最后，正式的法律法规，民事和刑事，（类似于民事法律制度）的发展。 Islamic legal system are directly influenced by religious doctrine . Islamic law is called the Sharia, and is sometimes enforces by Muslims alongs

5、ide a secular system . When it is the predominant legal system,all citizens must obey it ,whether they are Muslims or not. punishment for violations is fast and sometimes harsh by western standards .伊斯兰法律制度直接受宗教教义的影响。伊斯兰法是所谓的伊斯兰教法，有时是执行由穆斯林与世俗化。当它是主要的法律制度，所有公民都必须服从它，不管他们是否是穆斯林。对违规行为的惩罚是很快，有时也会受到西方标准

6、的严厉的处罚。Hindu law is prominent primarily in india where it exists alongside secular law derived from the british common law .it deals primarily with family matter and property succession .after independence from britain in1950 ,india codified hindu law in this areas.印度法突出主要在印度，它存在于世俗的法律源于英国的普通法。它主要涉及

7、家庭和财产继承。1950年印度从英国独立后，印度法律在这方面的规定。It is impossible to answer the question of which these legal systems in the best . most of us tend to favor the system used in our own nation and culture . An evidence of a mature society ,however ,is its willingness to question and criticize its own system and atte

8、mpt changes and improvement when possible. 这是无法回答的问题，这些法律制度，在最好的。我们中的大多数人都倾向于在我们国家和文化中使用的系统。然而，一个成熟的社会的证据，是它愿意质疑和批判自己的系统和尝试的变化和改进，当可能。Classifications of law in the united statesThe large body of law in the united states may be segmented according to several classification systems:美国的大法律，可以根据几个分类系统进行

9、分段：Public law versus private law . Public law involves the relationship between government and citizens （including business ）. Private law resolves disputes between citizens . When a party alleges that another trading partner has breached a contract , it is private law （contract law） that is used to

10、 resolve the dispute . in public law disputes, the government is the plaintiff while the defendant is private entity such as a business or individual.公法与私法。公共法律涉及政府与公民的关系（包括商业）。私法解决公民之间的纠纷。当一方当事人称另一个贸易伙伴违反了合同，那是私法（合同法），这是用来解决争端的。在公法上的纠纷，政府是原告，而被告是私人实体，如企业或个人。In the united states, the government has

11、intervened and modified agreements that citizens and businesses made among themselves . By way of example , the government has declared that employment discrimination based on race ,sex and national origins is illegal under the civil right act of 1964,subjecting companies to damaged claims and other

12、 penalties for discriminatory employment conditions they allow to exist . This is an important aspect of the right of equal protection as discussed below . Another example of government oversight of businesss dealings is the sherman antitrust act .,which prevent businesses from anticompetitive pract

13、ices such as price collusion . One of the driving forces behind government intervention in certain arenas is to protect the right of individuals,such as consumers and employees . The basis for this protectionism of individual rights in the US . Constitution which is dis cussed below.在美国，政府已经介入并修改了公民

14、和企业之间的协议。举例来说，政府已宣布以种族、性别和国家起源为基础的就业歧视是非法的，在1964的民事权利法案之下，受损害的公司对其允许存在的歧视性就业条件的损害赔偿和其他惩罚。这是平等保护权的一个重要方面，如以下所讨论的。另一个例子，其交易的政府监督是舍曼反托拉斯法。，这阻碍了企业的反竞争行为，如价格合谋。在某些领域，政府干预背后的驱动力之一是保护个人的权利，如消费者和雇员。美国个人权利保护的基础。宪法是讨论以下。Substantive law versus procedural law . Substantive law is concerned with the laws that de

15、fine, describe ,regulate and create the rights and responsibilities of the parties to a lawsuit . Procedural law ,on the other hand ,relates to ways in which substantive laws are enforced against violators. It involves the methods used to resolve disputes among citizens.实体法与程序法。实体法涉及对当事人的权利和责任的界定、描述

16、、规范和创造的法律。程序法，另一方面，涉及如何在实体法的执行对违规者。它涉及公民之间的纠纷解决的方法。Civil law versus criminal law . For most businesses ,civil law is more pertinent than criminal law . There are some notable differences between civil and criminal . First , the sanctions against a defendant in civil case are generally monetary where

17、as in criminal court the penalties include not only fines but imprisonment or even execution （in the case of a capital offense ）. Second ,the burdens of proof in the tow areas of law are sharply different . In a criminal case , the state has the responsibility to prove beyond a reasonable double tha

18、t the defendant is guilty . In a civil case , the plaintiff must prove by a preponderance of the evidence that the defendant committed a tort that entitles the plaintiff to monetary relief or an injunction .民法与刑法。对大多数企业而言，民法与刑法相关。民事与刑事有一些显著的区别。首先，对民事案件中的被告的制裁一般是货币，而在刑事法院的刑罚，包括不仅罚款，但有期徒刑甚至死刑（在一个死刑的情况

19、下）。二、两方面的证明责任在法律上的差异是显著的。在刑事案件中，国家有责任证明被告有罪，这超出了一个合理的双重责任。在民事案件中，原告必须由一个占优势的证据，被告的侵权行为，使原告的货币救济或禁制令，证明。The legal system in the unite stated and the protection of individual rightsThe American legal system is one of the most complex ,expensive systems in the world and is divided into two part :federa

20、l and state . The federal court systems has thirteen circuits each containing district courts and appellate courts. Each of the fifty states has it own multi-tiered system . While it is complex , the American legal system provides more protection to individuals than most other legal systems. Most of

21、 these rights are guaranteed by the united states constitution ,in particular , the first ten amendments known as the bill of rights . Two of the more cherished rights are freedom of speech and press , the right of peaceable assembly . Those more relevant to businesses are discussed below.美国法律制度是世界上

22、最复杂、最贵的制度之一，分为两个部分：联邦和州。联邦法院系统有十三个电路，每个地方都有地方法院和上诉法院。五十个州中的每一个都有多层次的系统。虽然它是复杂的，美国的法律制度提供更多的保护，个人比其他大多数法律制度。大多数的这些权利是由美国宪法，保证，前十条修正案被称为权利的账单。两个更加珍视的权利是言论自由和新闻自由，和平集会的权利。这些更与企业相关的讨论。The equal protection clause . After the American civil war, the fourteenth amendment was added to the constitution . It

23、provides that a state cannot deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection pf the laws . This protection of the laws . This provision prevent local and state governments from passing laws that invidiously discriminate against individuals . Not all discrimination is forbidden ; abso

24、lute equality wound be impracticable and impossible to enforce . Recognizing this reality , the supreme court has carved out three standards for evaluating equal protection claims: 1 the strict scrutiny test , where a classifications based on such things as age or color can be justified only where t

25、here is a compelling governmental interest （a very difficult standard ）; 2 the intermediate scrutiny test , applicable to classifications based on such things as age or gender , where the government will win if it can demonstrate that the classification is reasonably related to a legitimate governme

26、ntal purpose ; and 3 the rational basis test ,applicable to classifications that do not involve protected classifications , which will be upheld as long as there is a justifiable reason for the law . 平等保护条款。美国南北战争后，宪法第十四修正案增加了。它规定一国不能否认其管辖范围内的任何人的平等保护，法律。法律的保护。这一规定防止地方政府和州政府通过的法律，不公平歧视个人。不是所有的歧视是被禁止

27、的；绝对的平等是不现实的，不可能执行的伤口。认识到这一现实，最高法院已经划分了三个标准，以评估平等保护要求：1严格审查测试，根据这样的事情，如年龄或颜色的分类可以是合理的，有一个令人信服的政府利益（非常困难的标准）；2的中间审查测试，适用于分类的基础上，如年龄或性别，政府将赢得如果它可以证明该分类是合理的相关的合法政府的目的，并适用于分类，不涉及保护分类，这将被支持，只要有一个合理的理由。Due process . Both the fifth and fourteenth amendments to the united states constitution contain due pro

28、cess clauses. They provide that government can take a persons life, liberty or property only when it has provided that person with substantive and procedural due process. Substantive due process demands clarity in the law . A statute fails this test if it is so vague that ordinary people cannot unde

29、rstand its meaning or application . Procedural due process requires that a person have reasonable notice and a fair hearing in front of an impartial fact-finder,before being found in violation of a law. 正当程序。美国宪法第五和第十四修正案都包含正当程序条款。他们提供的政府可以采取一个人的生命，自由或财产，只有当它提供了实质性和程序性正当程序的人。实质性正当程序要求法律明确。如果这项测试是如此的模糊，以致普通人无法理解它的含义或适用，则该测试失败了。程序性正当程序要求一个人在公正的事实查找前有合理的通知和公正的听证，在被发现违反法律之前。Right to a jury . The seventh amendment to the U.S . Constitution provides that citizens in common law litigation shall have the right to a jury . When any party to a suit requests a jury , the judge must comply