1、 Higher level-meaning (larger units of meaning) the grouping of the three sounds/k/,/a:/,and/p/ can mean either a kind of fish(crap), or a public place for rest and amusement(park).(4) DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts wh
2、ich are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. Yesterday which book did you read?(5) Cultural transmissionLanguage can transmit Culture which the language contains.Exception;an English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use a language, but they are not mutually i
3、ntelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted.3、word formation(1)CompoundIt refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form. icecream, sunrise, paperbag(2) DerivationIt refers to the formation of n
4、ew words by adding affixes to other words or morphemes.Unconscious, national, nationalize(3) BlendingIt refers to the form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two wo
5、rds.Smoke + fog = smog 烟雾(4) Abbreviation1)cutting the final part ( or with a slight variation) advertisement-ad2) cutting the initial part aeroplane -plane3) cutting both the initial and final parts accordingly refrigerator - fridge(5) Acronym(I)It is made up from the first letters of the name of a
6、n organization, which has a heavily modified headword. WB : World BankAcronym(II)This process is also widely used in shortening extremely long words of word groups in science, technology and other special fields. VAT : value added tax 增殖税(6) Back- formationIt refers to an abnormal type of word-forma
7、tion where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the languageEditor -edit(7) BorrowingLatin: cancer, page, i.e.(that is) e.g.( for example) etc. (et cetera)Chinese: taji, chow mein, kung-fuJapanese: JudoFrench, German, Italian, Spanish(8) InventionSinc
8、e economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items, their producers or their brand names such as Kodak, Coke, nylon, and others to cope with the Invention of new entities.4. XP rule1.XP rule: specifier + head + complem
9、ent2. XP rule: (Specifier)XX X(complement)3. XP rule :(Specifier) X (Complement*)4. XP rule:(Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)Complement: (in grammar) that part of the sentence which follows the verb and which thus completes the sentence.Features: one or more complements are permitted (eg. A story a
10、bout a sentimental girl with purple umbrella ) words that can take CP are not verbs alone. As, Ns and Ps can all take CP (e.g. take it; poor as a chuch mouse;the man with hat;right near the fireplace) A certain lexical item requires a certain type of complement. (e.g. come to school; go to bed; look
11、 through it)Modifier: is used to specify optionally expressible properties of heads.Modifier position in EnglishModifierPositionexampleAPPrecedes the heada very careful girlPPFollows the headopen with careAdvPPrecedes or follows the headread carefully; carefully read5. 请从Behaviorism 的角度来举例说明其意义:Beha
12、viorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.”S_Tang Wanyi_r-s_Vicky_RWhen Tang Wanyi sees an apple and wants to have it, she has a physical stimulus, (represented by the capital letters), w
13、hich gives rise to a verbal response(r) to Vicky. For instance, she might say to Vicky ”Im thirsty”. What she says results in a verbal stimulus to Vicky (represented by the small letter S). This stimulus, in its turn, leads to a non-verbal response from Vicky, such as picking the apple for her.6. sy
14、nonymy(同义现象)Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms1) Dialectal synonyms- synonyms used in different regional dialects(地区方言)autumn - fall, biscuit - cracker, petrol gasoline 地方2) Stylistic synonyms-synonyms differing in styl
15、e,(文体风格上不同) kid, child, offspring; start, begin, commence;3) Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning(examples in Mandarin)(情感上和评价判断上的不同)合作者/同谋;结果/下场;鼓励/;领袖/;赞扬/团结4) Collocational synonyms(搭配意义上的不同)A group of people; a herd of wolves; a swarm of bees5) Semantically different synon
16、yms(语义不同)surprise/astonish; finish/complete7、locutionary act, illocutionary act,perlocutionary actFor example,“It is cold in here.”Its locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning “the weather is clod in here” ;Its illocutionary act can be a request of the hearer “to shut the window”
17、 ;Its perlocutionary act is the effect brought about; it can be “the hearers shutting the window or his refusal to comply with the request”.(作业本)You have left the door wide open the locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of all the words ”you”, ”have”, ”door”, ”open”, etc. thus ex
18、pressing what the words literally mean the illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking. i.e. asking someone to close the door. The perlocutionary act refers to the effect (result) of the utterance. It can be “the hearer cl
19、ose the door or refuse to comply with the request.8、Four maxims of CP (I)The maxim of quality-Do not say what you believe to be false.-Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.The maxim of quantity-Make your contribution as informative as required for the current purpose of the exchange.
20、-Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.The maxim of relation-Be relevant ( make your contribution relevant).The maxim of manner-Avoid obscurity of expression.-Avoid ambiguity.-Be brief.-Be orderly.(先判断在分析,先判断是不是relation从literal meaning是不是同一个主题)Conversational implicature 会话含
21、义,言外之意;会话含意In real communication, however, speakers do not always observe these maxims strictly. These maxims can be violated for various reasons. When any of the maxims is violated, i.e. both the speaker and the hearer are aware of the violation, our language becomes indirect, then conversational i
22、mplicature arises.填空,definition 判断 选择Phonetics: the study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to establishment of phoneticsPhonology: how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.Morphology: is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the mi
23、nimal units of meaning morphemes and word-formation processesSyntax: the study of how word combine to form sentences and the rules which govern the formation of sentences.Semantics: it examines how meaning is encoded in language. It is concerned with 1)meanings of the words. 2) levels of language be
24、low the word and above itPragmatics: the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situation in which they are used.Sociolinguistics: the study of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the co
25、re of the branchPsycholinguistics: relates the study of language to psychology. It aims to answer such questions as how the human mind works when we use language, how. , howArticulatory phonetics发音语音学-from the speakers point of view, “how speakers produce speech sounds”-speakingAcoustic phonetics声学语音学;-from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another.-soundingAuditory phonetics听觉语音学-from the hearers point of view, “how sounds are perceived”-listeningClassification of consonants- English consonants may be classified according to two dimensions:
copyright@ 2008-2022 冰豆网网站版权所有
经营许可证编号:鄂ICP备2022015515号-1