LinguisticsEC chapter13Word文档下载推荐.docx

1、 什么是语言?“Language” is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicationIt is a system，since linguistic elements are arranged systematically，rather than randomlyIts being a system accounts for its learnability and teachability；Arbitrary，in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic co

2、nnection between a word（like “book”） and the object it refers toThis explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different“books”：“book”in English，“livre”in French，本in Japanese，书in Chinese，“check”in KoreanIt is symbolic，because words are associated with objects, actions, idea

3、s etc. by nothing but conventionNamely，people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer toIt is vocal，because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages，developed or “new”Writing systems came much later than the spoken formsThe fact that small children lea

4、rn and can only learn to speak（and listen）before they write（and read） also indicates that language is primarily vocal，rather than writtenThe term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific“语言”是人类用来交际的任意性的语音符号的体系： 说它是体系，因为语言成分（如词）是有条理地组合的，而不是随意地拼缀的。这一系统性使得语言具有可学和可教的

5、性质。说语言是任意性的，意思是说一个词（如“书”）与它所指的物体之间通常没有本质的、内在的、固有的，联系。这就是为什么不同的语言有不同的“书”这一词，英语说book，法语说livre、日本语说“本”，汉语说“书”，朝鲜语说“切克”。这一事实回过头来可以解释上述任意性。说语言是符号，因为词语与客观世界的物体、行动、思想等的联系是约定俗成的。换言之，人们使用一定的音或语言形式去象征地指称事物。之所以说语言是语言符号，是因为语音或口头语言对于全世界所有的新老语言来说都是第一性的，文字是第二性的，因为后者比前者要晚许多年。也许我们可以从儿童的语言习得猜到人类祖先是如何使用语言的：儿童先学听说后学读写，

6、这一点可以间接说明语音或口头语言的第一性。之所以说语言是人类用来交际的体系，是因为我们认为语言（如果不加说明或修饰）是人类独有的东西（参见什么是语言的结构特征?”）。1.3 What are design features of language?什么是语言的本质特征? “Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communicationThey

7、 are arbitrariness，duality，productivity，displacement，cultural transmission and interchangeability“本质特征”指的是人类语言的本质特征，这些特征可以把任何一种人类语言和任何一种动物交际体系（暂不称之为语言）区别开来。这些结构特征是：任意性，双层性，能产性，不受时空限制性，文化传递性，互换性。1.3.1 What is arbitrariness? 什么是任意性?By“arbitrariness”，We mean there is no logical connection between meani

8、ngs and sounds A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitraryBut language is not absolutely arbitrary，because there are cases where there are or at least seem to be some sound meaning association，if we think of echo wo

9、rds，like“bang”，“crash”，“roar”，which are motivated in a certain senseSecondly，some compounds（words compounded to be one word）are not entirely arbitrary either“Type”and “write” are opaque or unmotivated words，while“typewriter”is less so，or more transparent or motivated than the words that make itSo we

10、 can say“arbitrariness”is a matter of degree.所谓“任意性”，指的是语音（或词）与它们的意义之间不存在什么逻辑联系。 我们称狗为“狗”，而不是“猪”，是因为最初说“狗”的那个（或几个）人偶然地称之为“狗”，如果他（们）改称狗为“猪”，那么今天我们说“猪”时指的就是狗了。语言在很大程度上是任意性的，这倒不是说语言是彻底地完全地任意，因为有时音与义之间有起码是似乎有一种关联，例如每种语言都有拟声词，它们是有理据的，因为人们不学就好像能悟出这些拟声词与它们所指的关系。另外，不少合成词也并非全然任意，试看type和write两个任意性很强的词（或称无理据词、

11、隐晦词）合二为一成了typewriter之后就不是那么任意了，学过type和write的人可能会猜到typewriter的意思，虽然这种猜字能力因人而异。可见，语言的任意性在很大程度上讲是一个相对的概念，涉及“任意”的量，而不牵涉“任意”的质。1.3.2 What is duality? 什么是双层性?Linguists refer “duality（of structure）to the fact that in all languages so far investigated One finds two levels of structure or patterningAt the fi

12、rst，higher level，language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units（such as morphemes, words etc）; at the second，Lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves，but which combine：to form units of meaningAccording to HU Zhuanglin et al，language is

13、 a system of two sets of structures，one of sounds and the other of meaningThis is important for the workings of languageA small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of semantic units （words）, and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite numb

14、er of sentences （note that we have dictionaries of words，but no dictionary of sentences!）Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledgeNo animal communication system enjoys this duality，or even approaches this honour“双层性”，即结构双层性，指的是这样一个语言事实或现象：就目前我们所知道的语言来说，它们都有两个

15、或两套结构，即两个不同水平的构架. 在语言的第一个平面，即更高水平的平面上，人们可以把语言分析成若干意义单位（如词素、单词等）的结合体。在第二个即较低水平的平面上，语言又被当成本身并没有意义的语音片段的系列，它们组合起来才能构成语义单位。胡壮麟说，语言系统有两个结构，一个是语音结构，另一个是语义结构。这两个结构，即结构二层性，对于言语运行或人们的言语运用来说尤为重要。为数不多的语音可以组合和再组合成为数众多的语义单位（即词语），而这些语义单位又可以组合和再组合成无穷多的语句。注意“双层性”产生的一个有趣现象，我们可以编纂出许多不同类型的词典，却编不出半本“句典”。双层性使人们能够说任何话语，表

16、达任何意义（在他们的知识范围内）。任何动物交际系统（暂且这样称之）都没有这种“双层性”，根本就没有。1.3.3 What is productivity? 什么是能产性?Productivity refers to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in ones native language，including those that he has never heard before，but that are appropriate to the speakin

17、g situation No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”，but he can say it when necessary，and he can understand it in the right registerDifferent from artistic creativity，though，productivity never goes outside the language，thus also cal

18、led“rulebound creativity”（by NChomsky）“能产性”指人们可以说（或构造）也可以懂得无穷多的语句，哪怕是从未听说过的句子（只要语境条件充分）。 例如，谁也未听过“一头红眼象和一只非洲长臂猿正在旅店小床上跳舞”这句话，但是原则上任何人都说得出来，也听得明白，只要是说得是时候，说的是地方，即只要语域使这句话可以接受。注意，人类语言的能产性与艺术界常说的“创造性”、“新颖”等不可同日而语。人类语言的能产性决不越出语言框架的雷池，这就是为什么乔姆斯基称之为“规则限制的能产性”的原因。1.3.4 What is displacement? 什么是不受时空限制性（位移性）

19、?“Displacement”，as one of the design features of the human language，refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present，as easily as he does things present.In other words，one can refer to real and unreal things，things of the past，of the present，of the futureLanguage itself can be

20、talked about too.When a man，for example，is crying to a woman，about something，it might be something that had occurred，or something that is occurring，or something that is to occurWhen a dog is barking，however，you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and thereIt couldnt

21、be bowwowing sorrowfully for some lost love or a bone to be lostThe bees system，nonetheless，has a small share of“displacement”，but it is an unspeakable tiny share“不受时空限制性”是指人们在交际中可以说及过去的和未来的事物，即不是现时的，也不是现场的事物，其容易程度犹如人们谈论眼前的事物。人们可以聊天聊地，一会儿说乔叟的生平，一会儿问及现在的股市行情，一会儿谈论香港回归之后的语言政策问题。再例如，一个男人对一个女人哭诉什么事的时候，这

22、件事可能是过去的事，可能是现实中的事，也可能是未来的什么忧虑。但是，当一只狗正在狂吠不止时，你几乎可以肯定它是为当时当地的什么事、物或人，它不可能是为前天失去的爱情或后天会失去的骨头而伤感吧。人们注意到，蜜蜂的舞蹈系统似乎有点例外，因为它拥有一点点“不受时空限制性”。不过与人的这一特性相比，它就相形见绌了。1.3.5 What is cultural transmission? 什么是文化传递性?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation，but that the

23、details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speakerIt is true that the capacity for language in human beings （NChomsky called it “language acquisition device”，or LAD）has a genetic basisBut the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one l

24、ike the dogs barking systemIf a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire languageThe Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolfs roaring“tongue”when he was savedHe learned thereafter，with no small difficulty，the ABC of a certain human language“文化传递性”指的是语言不是像

25、遗传基因或动物本能那样从父辈继承或代代相传的，语言作为一个体系必须一点一点地习得。诚然，人类个体都有习得母语的天生潜在的能力（N乔姆斯基称之为“语言习得机制”），而且这一能力具有一定程度的遗传基础，但是人所要学的某一个特定的语言是文化的即社会的语言，而不是什么遗传而得的语言（如狗的“吠语”或蜂的“舞语”）。一个人出生后若孤立于文化或社会的环境之外就无望习得任何语言，只是随虎学虎啸，跟猪学猪哼。“狼孩”的故事揭示了这一点，他在被“拯救”出狼窝时，他只是鬼哭狼嚎；在以后的人类教育之下，他才勉强和缓慢地学了一点人语的皮毛（因为动物交际体系对人类语言学习的先摄作用，还因为他超过了习得母语口语的最佳年龄

26、）。1.3.6 What is interchangeability? 什么是互换性? （1）Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say，and another occasions can receive and understand，for example，“Please do something to make me happy”Though some people （including me） suggest that

27、 there is sex differentiation in the actual language use，in other words，men and women may say different things，yet in principle there is no sound，or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot，or vice versaOn the other hand，a person can be the speaker while the other Person is the liste

28、ner and as the turn moves on to the listener，he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable. （2）Some male birds，however，utter some calls which females do not（or cannot?），and certain kinds of fish have similar sex-re

29、stricted types of communicationAnother example is Perhaps mentionableWhen a dog barks，all the neighboring dogs barkThen people around can hardly tell which dog（dogs） is （are）“speaking”and which listening 一、“互换性，是指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者。我们可以说出“请让我开心点”，也可以听到并理解这句话的意思。虽然有些人认为人类的语言运用中存在着性别差异，换言之，男人和女人说的话

30、有一些不同。但是从原则上讲，男子会说出的每一个音、每一个词、每一个句子女子都会说；反之亦然。另一方面，甲乙两人在交际时你有来言我有去语地一个话轮一个话轮地交谈着，甲说时乙当听众，乙开腔时甲成了听众。人们在交际中自觉地遵循着话轮转换的种种规约。二、然而，相比之下，一些雄鸟在求偶时可能发出一种叫声，而雌鸟决不（或决不能?）发出这种声音。还有几种鱼也有类似的雄雌有别的交际。让我们再来说狗。你要是听到一条狗在叫，附近的狗可能马上就要跟着叫，接着它们都在叫，你能否分清哪条或哪几条在叫?哪些在听? 狗的“吠语”才不会注意什么话轮转换或互换性呢!1.4 Why do linguists say langua

31、ge is human specific?语言学家为什么说语言是人类独有的? First of all，human language has six“design features”which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of themLets borrow CFHockets Chart that compares human language with some animalssystems，from Wang Gang（1988，P8） Secondly，linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpan