自考英语二电子教材下册文档格式.docx

1、Choice is the opportunity to select among alternatives. If there is no choice, there is no decision to be made. Decision making is the process of choosing, and many decisions have a broad range of choice. For example, a student may be able to choose among a number of different courses in order to im

2、plement the decision to obtain a college degree. For managers, every decision has constraints based on policies, procedures, laws, precedents, and the like. These constraints exist at all levels of the organization.Alternatives are the possible courses of action from which choices can be made. If th

3、ere are no alternatives, there is no choice and, therefore, no decision. If no alternatives are seen, often it means that a thorough job of examining the problems has not been done. For example, managers sometimes treat problems in an either/or fashion; this is their way of simplifying complex probl

4、ems. But the tendency to simplify blinds them to other alternatives.At the managerial level, decision making includes limiting alternatives as well as identifying them, and the range is from highly limited to practically unlimited.Decision makers must have some way of determining which of several al

5、ternatives is best - that is, which contributes the most to the achievement of organizational goals. An organizational goal is an end or a state of affairs the organization seeks to reach. Because individuals （and organizations） frequently have different ideas about how to attain the goals, the best

6、 choice may depend on who makes the decision. Frequently, departments or units within an organization make decisions that are good for them individually but that are less than optimal for the larger organization. Called suboptimization, this is a trade-off that increases the advantages to one unit o

7、r function but decreases the advantages to another unit or function. For example, the marketing manager may argue effectively for an increased advertising budget. In the larger scheme of things, however, increased funding for research to improve the products might be more beneficial to the organizat

8、ion.These trade-offs occur because there are many objectives that organizations wish to attain simultaneously. Some of these objectives are more important than others, but the order and degree of importance often vary from person to person and from department to department. Different managers define

9、 the same problem in different terms. When presented with a common case, sales managers tend to see sales problems, production managers see production problems, and so on.The ordering and importance of multiple objectives is also based, in part, on the values of the decision maker. Such values are p

10、ersonal; they are hard to understand, even by the individual, because they are so dynamic and complex. In many business situations different peoples values about acceptable degrees of risk and profitability cause disagreement about the correctness of decisions.People often assume that a decision is

11、an isolated phenomenon. But from a systems point of view, problems have multiple causes, and decisions have intended and unintended consequences. An organization is an ongoing entity, and a decision made today may have consequences far into the future. Thus the skilled manager looks toward the futur

12、e consequences of current decisions.01-B. Secrets of Success at an InterviewThe subject of todays talk is interviews.The key words here are preparation and confidence, which will carry you far.Do your homework first.Find out all you can about the job you are applying for and the organization you hop

13、e to work for.Many of the employers I interviewed made the same criticism of candidates. They have no idea what the day to day work of the job brings about. They have vague notions of furthering the companys prospects or of serving the community, but have never taken the trouble to find out the actu

14、al tasks they will be required to do.”Do not let this be said of you. It shows an unattractive indifference to your employer and to your job.Take the time to put yourself into the interviewers place. He wants somebody who is hard-working with a pleasant personality and a real interest in the job.Any

15、thing that you find out about the prospective employer can be used to your advantage during the interview to show that you have bothered to master some facts about the people who you hope to work for.Write down （and remember） the questions you want to ask the interviewer（s） so that you are not speec

16、hless when they invite your questions. Make sure that holidays and pay are not the first things you ask about. If all your questions have been answered during the interview, reply: In fact, I did have several questions, but you have already answered them all.”Do not be afraid to ask for clarificatio

17、n of something that has been said during the interview if you want to be sure what was implied, but do be polite.Just before you go to the interview, look again at the original advertisement that you answered, any correspondence from your prospective employer, photocopies of your letter of applicati

18、on or application form and your resume.Then you will remember what you said and what they want. This is very important if you have applied for many jobs in a short time as it is easy to become confused and give an impression of inefficiency.Make sure you know where and when you have to report for th

19、e interview. Go to the building （but not inside the office） a day or two before, if necessary, to find out how long the journey takes and where exactly the place is.Aim to arrive five or ten minutes early for the actual interview, then you will have a little time in hand and you will not panic if yo

20、u are delayed. You start at a disadvantage if you arrive worried and ten minutes late.Dress in clean, neat, conservative clothes. Now is NOT the time to experiment with the punk look or （girls） to wear low-cut dresses with miniskirts. Make sure that your shoes, hands and hair （and teeth） are clean a

21、nd neat.Have the letter inviting you for an interview ready to show in case there is any difficulty in communication.You may find yourself facing one interviewer or a panel. The latter is far more intimidating, but do not let it worry you too much. The interviewer will probably have a table in front

22、 of him/her. Do not put your things or arms on it.If you have a bag or a case, put it on the floor beside your chair. Do not clutch it nervously or, worse still, drop it, spilling everything.Shake hands if the interviewer offers his hand first. There is little likelihood that a panel of five wants t

23、o go though the process of all shaking hands with you in turn. So you do not be upset if no one offers.Shake hands firmly - a weak hand suggests a weak personality, and a crushing grip is obviously painful. Do not drop the hand as soon as yours has touched it as this will seem to show you do not lik

24、e the other person.Speak politely and naturally even if you are feeling shy. Think before you answer any questions.If you cannot understand, ask:Would you mind rephrasing the question, please? The question will then be repeated in different words.If you are not definitely accepted or turned down on

25、the spot, ask:When may I expect to hear the results of this interview?If you do receive a letter offering you the job, you must reply by letter （keep a photocopy） as soon as possible.Good luck!02-A. Black HolesWhat is a black hole? Well, its difficult to answer this question, since the terms we woul

26、d normally use to describe a scientific phenomenon are inadequate here. Astronomers and scientists think that a black hole is a region of space （not a thing ） into which matter has fallen and from which nothing can escape ?not even light. So we cant see a black hole. A black hole exerts a strong gra

27、vitational pull and yet it has no matter. It is only space - or so we think. How can this happen?The theory is that some stars explode when their density increases to a particular point; they collapse and sometimes a supernova occurs. From earth, a supernova looks like a very bright light in the sky

28、 which shines even in the daytime. Supernovae were reported by astronomers in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Some people think that the Star of Bethlehem could have been a supernova. The collapse of a star may produce a White Dwarf or a neutron star - a star, whose matter is so dense that

29、 it continually shrinks by the force of its own gravity. But if the star is very large （much bigger than our sun） this process of shrinking may be so intense that a black hole results. Imagine the earth reduced to the size of a marble, but still having the same mass and a stronger gravitational pull, and you have some idea of the force of a black hole. Any matter near the black hole is sucked in. It is impossible to say what happens inside a black hole. Scientists have called the boundary area around the hole the event horizon. We