笛卡尔 René DescartesWord文档下载推荐.docx

1、new sciences; and Descartes changed the relationship between philosophy and theology. Such new directions for philosophy made Descartes into a revolutionary figure. The two most widely known of Descartes philosophical ideas are those of a method of hyperbolic doubt, and the argument that, though he

2、may doubt, he cannot doubt that he exists. The first of these comprises a key aspect of Descartes philosophical method. As noted above, he refused to accept the authority of previous philosophers - but he also refused to accept the obviousness of his own senses. In the search for a foundation for ph

3、ilosophy, whatever could be doubted must be rejected. He resolves to trust only that which is clearly and distinctly seen to be beyond any doubt. In this manner, Descartes peels away the layers of beliefs and opinions that clouded his view of the truth. But, very little remains, only the simple fact

4、 of doubting itself, and the inescapable inference that something exists doubting, namely Descartes himself. His next task is to reconstruct our knowledge piece by piece, such that at no stage is the possibility of doubt allowed to creep back in. In this manner, Descartes proves that he himself must

5、 have the basic characterisitc of thinking, and that this thinking thing （mind） is quite distinct from his body; the existence of a God; the existence and nature of the external world; and so on. What is important in this for Descartes is, first, that he is showing that knowledge is genuinely possib

6、le （and thus that sceptics must be mistaken）, and, second, that, more particularly, a mathematically-based scientific knowledge of the material world is possible. Descartes work was influential, although his studies in physics and the other natural sciences much less so than his mathematical and phi

7、losophical work. Throughout the 17th and 18th Centuries, Descartes philosophical ghost was always present; Locke, Hume, Leibniz and even Kant felt compelled to philosophical entanglement with this intellectual giant. For these reasons, Descartes is often called the father of modern philosophy. This

8、article provides an overview of Descartes philosophical thought following the order of his most famous and widely-studied book, the Meditations on First Philosophy. Back to Table of Contents=1. LifeDescartes was born in a village near Tours in France in 1596. He was educated at a Jesuit college whic

9、h was firmly grounded in the scholastic tradition, and by no means adverse to the study of either the humanities, or science. At the school he was given privileges similar to those enjoyed by boys of noble birth, but on the grounds of his fragile health. Descartes studied a broad range of subjects,

10、and excelled particularly in mathematics. It is clear he benefited greatly from this Jesuit education, yet Descartes （in common with many intellectuals of his time） was keen to stress the separation of reason and faith. This meant that he could be sceptical concerning the philosophical and theologic

11、al positions taken by the Church, while maintaining his Catholic faith. After taking a degree in law from Poitier, Descartes enlisted in the Dutch and, later, the Bavarian militaries. By 1619, under the influence of the Dutch mathematician and scientist Beeckman, Descartes began his exceptionally fe

12、rtile mathematical studies of natural phenomena. Also around 1619, Descartes may have begun the unfinished Rules for the Direction of the Mind which was his first major philosophical treatise on the proper method for pursuing either science or rational theology. Over the next decade, Descartes alter

13、nated spending time in Paris with the circle of mathematicians and physicists gathered around the figure of Father Mersenne, and travelling widely. In 1629 Descartes moved to Holland where he lived in seclusion for 20 years, only occasionally returning to France, and changing his residence frequentl

14、y to preserve his privacy.The scientific and technical studies of these years resulted in the three texts on optics, meteorology and geometry, which were only published in 1637, and The World which was published posthumously. Nevertheless, Descartes was establishing quite a reputation as a forbidabl

15、e mathematician. Descartes made a number of important contributions to mathematics and physics, among the most enduring of which was his foundation （with Galileo） of what is now known as analytic geometry. That is, broadly speaking, the use of geometrical analysis to solve complex algebraic problems

16、, and vice versa. It is difficult to overestimate the importance for the history of mathematical physics of this bringing together of the sciences of geometry and algebra.With the exception of parts of the Rules and a few fragments, most of Descartes early metaphysical writings are lost. It was afte

17、r he moved to Amsterdam that Descartes began working in earnest on the philosophical ideas upon which his fame now rests. The Discourse on the Method was published in 1637, together with the three treatises mentioned above. And in 1640, he enlarged upon the metaphysical issues therein, writing his M

18、editations on First Philosophy. The full title of this work is Meditations on the First Philosophy: In Which the Existence of God and the Distinction Between Mind and Body are Demonstrated. The work was first published in 1641 in Latin and was translated into French in the following year by the Duc

19、de Luynes. The translation into French was relatively unusual and significant, for it testified to Descartes wishes to bring his work to a wider, non-specialised audience, who lay outside the accepted authorities on theological and philosophical matters. Descartes was so pleased with the French tran

20、slation that he made some additions and fully endorsed it for later publication. Descartes passed a manuscript of his Meditations onto his friend, Father Mersenne, who solicited comments from fellow scholars, including Thomas Hobbes. The comments were returned to Descartes. These, along with his len

21、gthy replies - several times longer than the Meditations themselves - were included in the second published edition of the Meditations （1642）. The Principles of Philosophy followed in 1644.In 1649, Descartes moved to Stockholm at the request of Queen Christina of Sweden who employed him as a philoso

22、phy tutor. Christina scheduled the lectures at 5 A.M. The early hours and harsh climate took their toll on Descartess already weakened condition. He died shortly after in 1650. During his life, Descartess fame rose to such an extent that （despite the theological controversies centering on him） many

23、Catholics believed he would be a candidate for sainthood. As his body was transported from Sweden back to France, anxious relic collectors along the path removed pieces of his body. By the time his body reached France, it was considerably reduced in size.Descartes philosophy developed in the context

24、 of the key features of Renaissance and early modern philosophy. Like the humanists, he rejected religious authority in the quest for scientific and philosophical knowledge. Although Descartes was a devout Catholic, he was also influenced by the Reformations challenge to Church authority, particular

25、ly the challenge against medieval Aristotelianism. Nevertheless, Descartes philosophical vocabulary is heavily determined by scholastic thought - Descartes was happy to borrow ideas or principles where he felt they were not against clear reasoning. For Descartes, reason was both the foundation and g

26、uide for pursuing truth. He was an active participant in the scientific revolution in both scientific method and in particular discoveries. Finally, and perhaps most importantly, Descartes reacted strongly against the Renaissance resurgence of ancient Greek scepticism. Thus, we find in Descartes wri

27、tings a relentless pursuit of absolute certainty.Descartes was hugely influential on individual, and key, philosophers throughout the 17th and 18th Centuries （Spinoza, Malbranche, Locke, Leibniz, etc.）. His insistence on a radical philosophy that dispensed, as far as possible, with authority; his in

28、sistence on the perspective of consciousness in epistemology; his attempt to raise the standard of philosophical argumentation to a science akin to geometry; his close integration of philosophy and physical science; his emphasis on methodology, all were hugely important. Even philosophers who reject

29、ed his thought spent a great deal of time and energy doing so - Descartes could not be ignored. Though Descartes mathematical works were unquestionably important, the particulars of his physics were less so. And yet Descartes general physics - the rational justification for a universal, mathematical

30、/ quantitative understanding of nature - was hugely significant. However, despite all these influences, his philosophical and scientific work never became the official new philosophy, as he had hoped it would. First, it suffered condemnation, usually on religious grounds; this began already during D

31、escartes lifetime, and his work was officially prohibited in 1663 by the Church in Rome. Then, by the early 18th Century, it suffered the double blow of the rise of empirically-minded approaches in Britain and France, together with the triumph of Newtonian physics pretty much everywhere.The followin