1、 Glossogenetics(言语遗传学)This focuses mainly on the biological basis of the formation and development of human language.Physiological adaptationdevelop naming abilityinteractions and transactionsPhysical adaptation:Human teeth are upright and roughly even in height.Human lips have intricate muscle inte
2、rlacing, thus making them very flexible.The human mouth is small and contains a very flexible tongue.The human larynx is lowered, creating a longer cavity called the pharynx, and making it easier for the human to choke on the pieces of food, but making the sound speech possible.The human brain is la
3、teralized. Those analytic functions (tool-using and language) are largely confined to the left hemisphere of the brain for most humans.Two major functions of language:Interactional: a social function of language.Transactional: a function involving the communication of knowledge and informationB The
4、properties of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.a) System: combined together according to rulesb) Arbitrary: no intrinsic connection between the word “pen” and the thing in the world which it refers toc) Vocal: the primary medium is sound for all la
5、nguagesd) Human: language is human-specific(交际性与信息性)Communicative vs. Informative:Communicative: intentionally using language to communicate somethingInformative: through/via a number of signals that are not intentionally sentDesign features (unique properties): the defining properties of human lang
6、uage that distinguish it from any animal system of communication Displacement(跨时空性,移位性)Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker (refer to past and future time and to other locations) Arbitrariness(任意性)There is no logical or natural connection bet
7、ween a linguistic form (either sound or word) and its meaning.While language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary.a) echo of the sounds of objects or activities: onomatopoeic wordsb) some compound words Productivity(能产性,创造性)Language is productive in that it makes possible the constru
8、ction and interpretation of new signals by its users. (Creativity or open-endedness) Cultural transition(文化传递性)While human capacity for language has a genetic basis (everyone was born with the ability to acquire a language), the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but ins
9、tead have to be taught and learnt. Discreteness(可分离性)Each sound in the language is treated as discrete. Duality(双重结构性,两重性或二元性)Language is organized at two levels or layers simultaneously. The lower or basic level is a structure of sounds which are meaningless. The higher level is morpheme or word (d
10、ouble articulation)The above six properties may be taken as the core features of human language.Vocal-auditory channel, reciprocity, specialization, non-directionality, or rapid fade, these properties are best treated as ways of describing human language, but not as a means of distinguishing it from
11、 other systems of communication.C The development of written language pictograms & ideograms(象形文字和表意文字)Pictogram: when some of the pictures came to represent particular images in a consistent way, we can begin to describe the product as a form of picture-writing, or pictograms.Ideogram: the picture
12、developed as more abstract and used other than its entity is considered to be part of a system of idea-writing, or ideogramHieroglyph: 古埃及象形文字 Logograms(语标书写法)When symbols come to be used to represent words in a language, they are described as examples of word-writing, or logograms.“Arbitrariness”a
13、writing system which was word-based had come into existence.Cuneiform-楔形文字the Sumerians (5000 and 6000 years ago)Chinese is one example of its modern writing system.Advantages: two different dialects can be based on the same writing system.Disadvantages: vast number of different written forms. Sylla
14、bic writing(音节书写法)When a writing system employs a set of symbols which represent the pronunciations of syllables, it is described as syllabic writing.The Phoenicians: the first human beings that applied the full use of a syllabic writing system (ca 1000 BC) Alphabetic writing(字母书写法)Semitic languages
15、 (Arabic and Hebrew): first applied this ruleThe Greeks: taking the inherently syllabic system from the Phoenicians via the RomansLatin alphabet and Cyrillic alphabet (Slavic languages) Rebus writingRobus writing evolves a process whereby the symbol used for an entity comes to be used for the sound
16、of the spoken word used for that entity.Chapter 2 What is linguistics?A The definition of linguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Process of linguistic study: Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed; Hypotheses are formulated; Hypothes
17、es are tested by further observations; A linguistic theory is constructed.B The scope of linguisticsGeneral linguistics: the study of language as a wholePhonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study of the phonic medium of language) (How speech sounds are produce
18、d and classified)Phonology: is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. (How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning)Morphology: the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (how morphemes are combined to form words)Synt
19、ax: the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences)Semantics: the study of meaning in abstractionPragmatics: the study of meaning in context of useSociolinguistics: the study of language with referen
20、ce to societyPsycholinguistics: the study of language with reference to the workings of the mindApplied linguistics: the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learningAnthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics; mathematical linguistics; computational
21、linguisticsC Some important distinctions in linguistics Prescriptive vs. Descriptive Synchronic vs. DiachronicThe description of a language at some point in time;The description of a language as it changes through time. Speech and writingSpoken language is primary, not the written Langue and paroleP
22、roposed by Swiss linguists F. de Sausse (sociological)Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communityParole: refers to the realization of langue in actual use Competence and performanceProposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky (psychological)Compet
23、ence: the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his languageChapter 3 Phonetics and phonologyA The definition of phonetics the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages.Articulatory phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are mad
24、e, or articulated.Acoustic phonetics: deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air.Auditory (or perceptual) phonetics: deals with the perception, via the ear, of speech sounds.Forensic phonetics: has an application in legal cases involving speaker identification and the ana
25、lysis of recorded utterances.B Organs of speechVoiceless: when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded.Voiced: when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeated pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect.A
26、ll the English vowels are typically voiced (voicing).The important cavities:The pharyngeal cavityThe oral cavityThe nasal cavityLips, teeth, teeth ridge (alveolus), hard palate, soft palate (velum), uvula, tip of tongue, blade of tongue, back of tongue, vocal cordsC Orthographic representation of sp
27、eech soundsBroad and narrow transcriptionsIPA (International Phonetic Alphabet/Association)Broad transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols onlyNarrow transcription: the transcription with diacriticsE.g.:lli:f- a clear l (no diacritic)lbild-a dark l ()lhel-a dental l ( )ppit-an aspirated p
28、h(h)pspit-an unaspirated p (no diacritic)nbtna syllabic nasal n ()D Classification of English consonantsIn terms of manner of articulation (the manner in which obstruction is created) Stops: the obstruction is total or complete, and then going abruptlyp/b, t/d, k/g Fricatives: the obstruction is partial, and the air is forced through a narrow passa
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