英语语言学lecture two.docx

1、英语语言学lecture twoTake language as a tool for access to some other fields rather than study it as a subjectLanguage distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.What is language? It is very difficult to give a satisfactory definition. We may s

2、ay “Language is a tool for human communication”. But that does not say anything about its defining properties, only about its function. There are many other systems (secret codes, traffic signals) performing the same function.We may say “Language is a set of rules.”; again that says nothing about it

3、s function, and there are other systems containing sets of rules.A tentative definition is given like the following: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language must be a system, since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules. And they can not

4、 be combined at will.Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the word pen and the thing we use to write with. That fact that different languages have different words for it speaks for the arbitrary nature of language.We say language is vocal because the prima

5、ry medium is sound for all language, no matter how well developed are their writing systems. All evidence shows that writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that children acquire spoken language first before they can read or write also indicates that language is primarily voc

6、al.The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess (such as bird songs and animal cries.)Step1. Design features of languageWhat makes our language advantageous over animal “languages”/ distinctive from

7、languages used by other species/ complicated and flexible?1. ArbitrarinessThe forms of linguistic signs/morpheme bear no natural relationship to their meaning and objects. We can not explain why a book is called a /buk/ in English but a 书 in Chinese. What is the link between a linguistic sign and it

8、s meaning? It is a matter of convention.There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. However, language is not entirely arbitrary How about onomatopoeia, words that sound like the sounds they describe.; there are cases where there seems to be some association between sounds and meaning

9、.The onomatopoeic words are certain words in every language which imitate natural sounds, such as bang, crash in English or putong, dingdang in Chinese. But in different languages, totally different words are used to describe the sound. For example, the dog barks wow wow in English but wangwang in C

10、hinese. Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary; there is a certain connection between their sounds and meaning. For example, the machine we type our papers on is called “typewriter”.There are different levels of arbitrariness. That is to say, syntax is less arbitrary than words. As we know,

11、the order of elements in a sentence follows certain rules, and there is a certain degree of correspondence between the sequence of clauses and the real happenings. (a) He came in and sat down.(b) He sat down and came in.(c) He sat down after he came in.Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a m

12、orpheme and its meaning “It is only when you know the meaning that you infer that the form is appropriate.” (Widdowson, 1996).The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and this makes it possible for language to have unlimited sources of expression.2. Duality“By duality is meant th

13、e property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the tow levels has its own principles of organization.”(Lyons, 1982)The property of duality then only exists in such a system, namely, with both elements an

14、d units. Many animals communicate with special calls, which have corresponding meanings. That is, the primary units have meanings but cannot be further divided into elements.Language is hierarchical. The lowest level consists of dozens of bits of meaningless sounds. The sounds occur in chumps to for

15、m syllable which is the smallest unit. (etc. monosyllabic like cat, dog and polysyllabic like transplant,) Scores of syllables becomes the carriers of hundreds of meaningful segments of words that are called morphemes, such as the prefix trans-. Morphemes compose thousands of word. Out of the huge n

16、umber of words, there can be endless number of sentences, which in turn can form unlimited number of texts and discourses.Stratification-this organization of levels on levels-is the physical manifestation of the “infinite use of finite means”, the trait that most distinguishes human communication fr

17、om animal.3. CreativityLanguage is a far more complicated entity than traffic lights is that we can use it to create new meanings. Words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be understood by people who have never come across that word before. Birds can only convey a limited range of me

18、ssages. As Bertrand Russell once observed: “No matter how eloquently a dog may mark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest.”Because of duality the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences. (dictionary)4. Displacement (the movement

19、from initial position to subsequent position)移位Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. Language can be used to refer to things which are not present: real or imagine

20、d matters in the past, present, or future or in faraway places. In other words, language can refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.Some animals are under “immediate stimulus control”. Calls or cries are produced in contact of food, in presence of danger or in pain. O

21、nce the danger or pain is over, calls are stopped. Human language is stimulus free. The intellectual benefits of displacement to us is that it makes it possible for us to talk and think in abstract terms.Step2. Origin of languageSo far there are only fruitless search for the origin of languages. The

22、 action reflects peoples concern with the origin of humanity and may come up with enlightening findings in future. And one thing we can say for certain is that language evolves within specific historical, social and cultural contexts.Step3. Functions of languageA brief explanation to Jakobsons class

23、ification of functions of languge P 91 Informative function (ideational function/ referential function)Language serves an informative function when it is used to tell what the speaker believes, to give information about facts, or to reason things out. Language serves for the expression of content. T

24、his function is characterized by the use of declarative sentences For most people the informative function is predominantly the major role of language. Language is the instrument of thought and people often feel need to speak their thoughts. The use of language to record the facts is a prerequisite

25、of social development.2. Interpersonal function 人际功能By far the most important sociological use of language is the interpersonal function, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society. For example, the ways in which people address others and refer to themselves ( e.g. Dear Sir, De

26、ar Professor, yours, your obedient servant) indicate the various grades of interpersonal relations.Language marks peoples identity. For example, the chanting of a crowd at a football match, the shouting of names or slogans at public meetings, the stage-managed audience reactions to TV games shows al

27、l signal who we are and where we belong.Performative function 言语行为功能The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.Language is also used to “do things”.,

28、to perform actions. This is called the performative function. On certain occasions, the uttering of the appropriate words is the central component in the performance of the act. At a meeting, for example, as soon as the chairman says “I declare the meeting open”, the meeting has started”. If the pre

29、sident says “I declare war”, war exists between the two countries. In all these cases, the act cannot be performed without the sentences being uttered. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.Emotive function (expressive function)Accordin

30、g to some investigations, though the conveying of information occurs in most uses of language, it probably represents not more than 20 percent of what takes place in verbal communication. The emotive function of language is one of the most powerful uses of langue.It is a means of getting rid of our

31、nervous energy when we are under stress.A man may say ouch! After striking a fingernail with a hammer, or he may mutter damn when realizing that he has forgotten an appointment. Exclamations such as Man! Oh, boy! And hurrah! are usually uttered without any purpose of communicating to others, but as

32、essentially a verbal response to a persons own feelings. The emotive function is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings and attitudes of the speaker. While in the informative function language is used to pass judgement on the truth or falsehood of statement, in emotive function, language is used to evaluate, appraise and assert the speakers attitudes.Phatic communionWe all use such small, seemingly meaningless expressions to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without involving any factual content. Ritual exc