2 PHONETICS.docx

1、2 PHONETICS2. PHONETICS2.1 Scope of phonetics PHONETICS is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. SPEECH SOUNDS may be studied from different angles, th

2、ree branches of phonetics, articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics and acoustic phonetics.2.1.1 Articulatory phonetics Speech sounds may be studied from the point of view of the speaker, that is, we may examine the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involve

3、d and how they coordinate in the process. This aspect of phonetics is called ARTICULATORY PHONETICS. 2.1.2 Auditory phoneticsA meaningful act of speech has another end the reception end. The sounds produced by the speaker will be received by the hearer. Speech sounds therefore may also be studied fr

4、om the hearers point of view. We may look into the impression a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain. This area of research is known as AUDITORY PHONETICS. 2.1.3 Acoustic phoneticsTo make a speech sound visible so that we can measure its component

5、s objectively we must then go into the domain of ACOUSTIC PHONETICS, which studies the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear. Instruments, such as the oscillograph and the sound spectrograph, have been used to translate a sound into a visual representation of its

6、 components in terms of frequency and intensity. The sound spectrograph will, in addition, show the formants of vowels.2.2 The Vocal OrgansThe vocal organs (see Fig. 1), or the speech organs, are organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs may

7、 be viewed as consisting of three parts, the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.2.1 The initiator of the air-streamThe first requisite for the production of a speech sound is that there is an air-stream.2.2.2 The vocal cordsThe air-stream provided by the

8、 lungs has to undergo a nuntoer of modifications to acquire the quality of a speech sound. The first point where it is possible to modify the air-stream is at the top of the windpipe, which ends in a bony structure called the LARYNX. Inside the larynx are the VOCAL CORDS. They are in fact two folds

9、of membrane (hence also the name vocal folds), which are fixed together at the front but horizontally moveable at the back. The space between the vocal cords is termed the GLOTTIS. In speech the vocal cords have three main functions. (1) The vocal cords may be closed tightly so that the airstream fr

10、om the lungs is blocked and the air pressure behind them builds up. This phenomenon is called the GLOTTAL STOP and symbolized as?. Thus the sound is inaudible, but it has its effect on surrounding segments. In English, it often occurs initially to pronounce a word like idiot which begins with a vowe

11、l. (2) If the vocal cords are brought together to the extent that there is only a narrow passage between them, the pressure of the airstream will set them in vibration. The result is a sound. The sound has a regular waveform and the number of vibrations in a second is fixed, so that we can perceive

12、its pitch. In phonetics, this sound is called VOICE, and sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called VOICED SOUNDS. Consonants like English b,m,z are voiced. Vowels are usually voiced, too. The PITCH of a sound depends on the rate of vibration of the vocal cords, which in turn is

13、determined by the length of the vocal cords. When the vocal cords are not vibrating at the time of its production, the resultant sound is called a VOICELESS SOUND. Consonants like f, s, p are voiceless sounds.2.2.3 The resonating cavitiesIn the human speech mechanism, there are three resonating cavi

14、ties: the PHARYNS, the NASAL CAVITY and the ORAL CAVITY.2.2.3.1 The pharynxThe PHARYNX stretches from the top of the larynx up to the back of the nasal cavity and serves as the container of a voiume of air which can be set into vibration in harmony with vibrations coming from the vocal cords.2.2.3.2

15、 The nasal cavityThe NASAL CAVITY is of fixed dimensions and shape, and its contribution to speech is entirely a matter of resonance.2.2.3.3 The oral cavityThe ORAL CAVITY is by far the most important of the three cavities; it is here that most of the distinctions of articulate speech are fashioned.

16、The oral cavity is bounded at the top by a dome shaped structure the PALATE. The front part of the palate is bony and fixed, hence the term HARDPALATE; its back part, the SPFTPALATE, is muscular and moveable. The soft fleshy tip of the soft palate hanging down at the backof the mouth is called the U

17、VULA.On the hard palate just behind the teeth one can feel a prominentridge. This covers the roots of the teeth and is called the teeth ridge or, more learnedly, the ALVEOLAR RIDGE. Moving further outwards, we come to the teeth, and the outmost are the lips forming the front exit of the oral cavity.

18、 At the bottom of the oral cavity lies a complex muscular structure the TONGUE. When the tongue is at rest, with its tip lying behind the lower teeth, the part which lies opposite the hard palate is called the FRONT and that which faces the soft palate is called the BACK. The tapering section facing

19、 the teeth ridge is called the BLADE and its extremity the TIP.The system of vocal organs is also termed the VOCAL TRACT. The part which is above the larynx is called the supraglottaltract and the part below the larynx the subglottal tract. The supraglottal is further divided into the ORAL TRACT and

20、 the NASAL TRACT, the dividing line being the soft palate in its raised position. The vocal organs in the oral tract are technically known as ARTICULATORS, those which are moveable are active articulators and those not moveable are passive articulators.2.3 ConsonantsSpeech sounds may be classified i

21、nto two major types in terms of their articulatory characteristics. The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the airstream at some point of the vocal tract are called CONSONANTS. The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air-stream

22、 passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called VOWELS.2.3.1 Places of articulation(1) BILABIAL - the obstruction of the airstream is caused by the two lips, such as in the production of p, b, m of the English words “pie, buy, my”.(2) LABIODENTAL - the obstruction of the airstream is

23、caused by the lower lip and the upper front teeth, such as in the production of f, v of the English words “fie, vie”.(3) DENTAL - the obstruction of the airstream is caused by the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth, such as in the production of of the English words “thigh, thy”.(4) ALVEOL

24、AR - the obstruction of the airstream is caused by the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge, such as in the production of t, d, 1, n, s, z of the English words “tie, die, lie, nigh, sigh, zyme”.(5) RETROFLEX - the obstruction of the airstream is caused by the underside of the tongue tip and th

25、e back of the alveolar ridge. The tip of the tongue curled up and back. In the standard pronunciation of Southern British English, known as RECEIVED PRONUNCIATION (RP), retroflex sounds are not usually used.A retroflex r-sound is typical of many American speakers.(6) PALATO-ALVEOLAR - the obstructio

26、n of the air-stream is caused by the tongue blade and the back of the alveolar ridge, such as in the production of , 3 of the English word “shy” and the French word “genre”.(7) PALATAL - the front of the tongue is raised towards the hard palate to obstruct the air-stream, such as in the production o

27、f j of the English words “yes, you”.(8) VELAR - the back of the tongue is raised so that it touches the soft palate to obstruct the air-stream, such as in the production of k, g, of the English words “sick, zig, sing”.(9) UVULAR - the obstruction of the airstream is caused by the back of the tongue

28、and the uvular, such as in the production of R or R of the French words “rouge, rose”.(10) GLOTTAL - the obstruction of the airstream is caused by the vocal cords, such as in the production of ?, the glottal stop mentioned before. Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulatio

29、n. For example, the English w has both an approximation of the two lips and that of the back of the tongue and the soft palate, and may be termed LABIAL-VELAR.2.3.2 Manners of articulation(1) PLOSIVE - in the production of a plosive, the air-stream is obstructed completelv both in the oral and nasal

30、 tracts, so that when the closure in the oral tract is suddenly released, the compressed air rushes out and produces an explosive sound. According to the place of the oral closure, plosives may be bilabial p, b, alveolar t, d, velark, g, glottal ?, etc A plosive can also be called an ORAL STOP.(2) N

31、ASAL - in the production of a nasal, the air- stream is completely obstructed in the oral tract but not in the nasal tract, so that the air passes through the nose freely. e. g. bilabial m, alveolar n, velar , etc. A nasal can also be called a NASAL STOP.(3) TRILL - in the production of a trill the

32、obstruction of the air-stream is caused by air pressure when a flexible organ touches and leaves a firmer surface in very quick movements repeatedly.(4) LATERAL - in the production of a lateral the air-stream is obstructed along the centre of the oral tract, but one or both sides of the tongue are away from the roof of the mouth, so that the air can go through the mouth laterally. For instance, 1 of the English words “lie, low” is normally produced without audible