语言学.docx

语言学.docx

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语言学

第一章

1.Whatislanguage?

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication

2.Designfeaturesoflanguage

①Arbitrariness（任意性）referstotheformsof linguisticsigns bearnonaturalrelationshiptotheir meaning.（soundsandmeanings）

②Duality（二层性）:

Thepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization.

③Productivity/creativity（创造性）:

Languageisproductiveinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers. 

④Displacement（移位性）:

HumanLanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent（intimeandspace）atmomentofcommunication.（p7）

3.Functionsoflanguage

① Informative（信息功能）:

togiveinformationaboutfacts.（ideational） 

② Interpersonal（人际功能）:

toestablishandmaintainsocialstatusinasociety.（age,sex,language,background,accent,status）

③ Performative（施为功能）:

languageisusedtodothings,toperformcertainactions.（name,promise,apologize,sorry,declare）

④.Emotive/Expressive （情感功能）:

toexpressfeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker. 

⑤Phaticcommunion（寒暄交流）:

tousesmallandmeaninglessexpressionstoestablishacomfortablerelationshipormaintainsocialcontactbetweenpeoplewithoutanyfactualcontent.（health,weather）

⑥ Recreationalfunction（娱乐）:

theuseoflanguageforsheerjoy.（lyrics,poetry）

⑦Metalingualfunction（元语言功能）:

totalkaboutlanguageitself.

4.Whatislinguistics?

Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedas thescientificstudyoflanguage.

5.Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics

Descriptive&prescriptive

Synchronic&diachronic

Langue&parole 

Competence&performance

6.Descriptive（描写/述性）—describeandanalyzelinguisticfactsorthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse（modernlinguistic）

Prescriptive（规定性）—laydownrulesfor “correctandstandard” linguisticbehaviorinusinglanguage（traditionalgrammar:

 “neveruseadoublenegative”）

7.Synchronicstudy （共时）—descriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime（modernlinguistics） 

Diachronicstudy（历时）— descriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime（historicaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime） 

第四章

1．WhatisSyntax （句法）?

Syntaxisthestudyoftherulesgoverningtheways differentconstituents arecombinedtoform sentences.句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则

2．FourApproaches:

Thetraditionalapproach传统语言观 （Partsofspeech、SyntacticFunction不考、Category范畴、Concordandgovernment一致关系和支配关系）、Thestructuralapproach结构语言观、Thegenerativeapproach、Thefunctionalapproach功能语言观

3．Thetraditionalgrammarregardssentencesas asequenceofwords ,soitpaysgreatattentiontothestudyof words ,suchastheclassificationofwordsintermsof partsofspeech ,theidentificationoffunctionofwordsintermsof subject,predicate ,etc.

4.Partsofspeech

Traditionalgrammardefines8partsofspeech:

nouns,verbs,pronouns,adjectives,adverbs,prepositions,conjunctionsandinterjections.

5．Theterm Category范畴 insomeapproachesreferstowordclassesandfunctionsinitsnarrowsense,范畴这一术语狭义上是指词类和功能 eg.Noun,Verb,Subject,Predicate.Morespecifically,itreferstothedefiningpropertiesofthesegeneralunits:

thecategoriesofthenoun名词的范畴,includenumber,gender,caseandcountability（case）; 

thecategoriesoftheverb动词的范畴:

tense,aspect,voice,etc.

6．Number ismostlyacategoryofthenounandpronoun名词和不可数名词.

Twotermsofnumberinnouns:

singularandplural单数和复数

Numberisalsoreflectedintheinflectionsofpronounsandverbs

7.Gender isalsomostlyacategoryofthenounandpronoun.

InEnglish,thegenderdistinctionsareonthewholenatural,determinedbythebiologicalgenderofthecreature.

8.Case isusedintheanalysisofwordclassestoidentifythesyntacticrelationshipbetweenwordsinasentence.在词类分析中，格范畴用来辨别句子中词之间的句法关系

InEnglish,pronounshavethreecasesofnominative主格,accusative受格,andgenitive与格.Nounshavetwoofgeneralandgenitive所有格

InEnglish,thecaseofnounisrealisedinthreechannels:

（a）inflection（b）followingapreposition（c）wordorder

9.Tense时态:

 theabsolutelocationofaneventoractionontime.Itismarkedbyaninflectionoftheverb.Asaresult,thereareonlytwotensesrecognizednow:

pastandpresent.

Sincethefuturetimedoesnotinvolveanyinflectionoftheverb,wedonotrefertoa“futuretense”,eventhoughinmanydifferentwayswecantalkaboutthefuture.

10.Aspect体:

Ithasnothingwithtime,andittellsuswhetheranactionisongoingorcompleted.

Perfective（完成体） andImperfective（进行体）

PerfectiveandProgressive（inEnglish）

11.Voice语态:

 describetherelationshipbetweenverbandsubject 

Passive被动语态 andactive主动语态

12.Concordandgovernment

①Concord （一致关系） refersto agreement betweenwords,especiallybetweena verb andthe subject ofasentence.

②Government （支配关系） isatypeofgrammaticalrelationshipbetweentwoormoreelementsinasentence.

Intraditionalgrammar,thetermgovernmenthastypicallybeenusedtorefertotherelationshipbetween verbsandnouns orbetween prepositionsandnouns.

13.TheStructuralApproach ，由FerdinanddeSaussure提出

14.SyntacticRelations：

Positionalrelations位置关系、Relationsofsubstitutability替代关系、Relationsofco-occurrence同现关系

15.Immediateconstituent（直接成分） isanymeaningfulconstituentatthefirststepinananalysis.

16.An endocentricconstruction （向心结构） isaconstructionthatcontains:

  1）a head,whichisthesingleobligatoryelementintheconstruction;

  2）oneormore optionalelements subordinatetothehead. 

17.theme （主位） referstotheknowninformationwhichisnotnewtothereaderorlistener

Rheme （述位） referstotheinformationthatisnew.Thenewinformationiswhatistobetransmittedtothereaderorlistener

ThelinguistsofthePragueschoolbelievedthatsentencemaybeanalyzedfromthe functional sideaswellasthe grammatical side.

subject,predicate（grammaticalside）

theme,rheme  （functionalside） 

第五章

1. WhatisSemantics?

Semanticsisthestudyofthemeaningofwords,phrasesandsentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科

2．GeoffreyLeech利奇Seventypesofmeaning7种意义类型:

①Conceptualmeaning概念意义

②Connotativemeaning内涵意义

③Socialmeaning社会意义

④Affectivemeaning 感情意义      AssociativeMeaning联想意义（②——⑥）

⑤Reflectedmeaning反射意义

⑥Collocativemeaning搭配意义

⑦Thematicmeaning主位意义

3.Conceptualmeaning （概念意义） isalsocalled“denotative”（外延义）anditisconcernedwiththerelationshipbetweenawordandthethingitrefersto.概念意义也叫外延义，它关注词语跟它所指称事物之间的联系

Conceptualmeaningis  meaninggiveninthedictionary.

4.Associativemeaning （联想意义） isthetotalofallthemeaningsapersonthinksofwhentheyheartheword

Associativemeaningisthemeaningwhichawordsuggestsorimplies.

5.Thematicmeaning（主位意义） is “whatiscommunicatedbythewayinwhichthemessageisorganizedintermsoforderandemphasis.”它是由词序和词语重音所决定的

6. TheReferentialTheory（指称理论）：

① TheReferentialTheory

② TheSemanticTriangle

③ SenseandReference

7.Thereferentialtheory 指称理论 isthetheoryofmeaningwhichrelatesthemeaningofawordtothethingitrefersto.指称论是把词语意义跟它所指称的事物联系起来的理论

8.Thesemantictriangle语意三角 isthe indirect relationbetweenawordandathingitreferstoanditismediatedby concept.语意三角指词和所指事物之间没有直接关系，它们是以概念为中介的

9.Sense （涵义）isasetofpropertiespossessedbyaname.

10.Reference （指称）isthesymbolicrelationshipthatalinguisticexpressionhaswiththeconcreteobject.

11.The sense ofanexpressionisthethoughtitexpresses,whileits reference istheobjectitrepresents

Everywordhasasense,butnoteverywordhasareference.

12. SenseRelations涵义关系

①Synonymy（同义关系）

②Antonymy（反义关系）  （Gradable、Complementary、Converse）

③Hyponymy（上下义关系）

13.Buttotalsynonymyisrare.Theymaydifferin style, connotations and dialect.

14.Gradableantonymy（等级反义关系） 、Complementaryantonymy（互补反义关系）、Converseantonymy（反向反义关系）

15.Componentialanalysis isanapproachtothestudyofmeaningwhichanalysesawordintoasetof meaningcomponents.

16.SentenceMeaning

17. Senserelationsbetweensentences

① Synonymity（同义）

  a.Hewasabachelorallhislife.

  b.Henevermarriedallhisboy.

Sentencesaandbareinasynonymousrelationship:

thetruthofonesentencenecessarilyimpliesthetruthofanothersentence

②     Inconsistency （矛盾）

  a.ElizabethIIisQueenofEngland.

  b.ElizabethIIisaman.

Sentencesaandbareinarelationshipofcontradiction:

thetruthofonesentencenecessarilyimpliesthefalsenessofanothersentence.

③     Entailment（蕴涵）

  a.Hemarriedablondeheiress.

  b.Hemarriedablonde.

Entailmentreferstoakindofmeaninginclusion.Ifxentailsy,themeaningofxisincludediny. 

④     Presupposition （前提预设）

Itiswhataspeakerorwriterassumesthatthereceiverofthemessagealreadyknows.

⑤Contradiction （矛盾）

⑥Semanticanomaly （语义反常）

18.Anintegratedtheory

﹡Compositionality（组合性原则）：

themeaningofasentencedependsonthemeaningoftheconstituentwordsandthewaytheyarecombined.

﹡Thissemantictheoryistheintegrationofsyntaxandsemantics

﹡Theirbasicideaisthatasemantictheoryconsistsoftwoparts:

 adictionary and asetofprojectionrules

﹡Thedictionaryprovidesthegrammaticalclassificationandsemanticinformationofwords

﹡Theprojectionrulesareresponsibleforcombiningthemeaningsofwordstogether.

19.Logicalsemantics（逻辑语义学）

﹡Aproposition（命题）iswhatistobeexpressedbyadeclarativesentencewhenthatsentenceisutteredtomakeastatement.

﹡Itisthebasicmeaningwhichasentenceexpress.

﹡Averyimportantpropertyofthepropositionisthatithasatruthvalue.

第七章

1.LanguageandCulture：

①Sapir-WhorfHypothesis②EvidenceGivenbyWhorf ③ImplicationofSWH ④Relationbetwe