语言学笔记整理15.docx

语言学笔记整理15.docx

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语言学笔记整理15

Linguistics

Chapter1Introduction：

Languageandlinguistics

Ⅰ.Whatislanguage?

1.Differentdefinitionsoflanguage

（1）Languageisasystemwhosepartscanandmustbeconsideredintheirsynchronicsolidarity.（deSaussure,1916）

（2）[Languageis]aset（finiteorinfinite）ofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.（Chomsky,1957）

（3）Languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.

2.Eachofthedefinitionsabovehaspointedoutsomeaspectsoftheessenceoflanguage,butallofthemhaveleftoutsomething.Wemustseethemulti-facetednatureoflanguage.

3.Asisagreedbylinguistsinbroadterms,languagecanbedefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.

Ⅱ.Featuresofhumanlanguage

1.Creativity

（1）Languageprovidesopportunitiesforsendingmessagesthathaveneverbeensentbeforeandforunderstandingbrandnewmessages.

（2）Thegrammarrulesandthewordsarefinite,butthesentencesareinfinite.Everyspeakeruseslanguagecreatively.

2.Duality

（1）Languagecontainstwosubsystems,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeanings.

（2）Certainsoundsorsequencesofsoundsstandforcertainmeanings.

（3）Certainmeaningsareconveyedbycertainspeechsoundsorsequencesofspeechsounds.

3.Arbitrariness

（1）Therelationshipbetweenthetwosubsystemsoflanguageisarbitrary.

（2）Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweensoundandmeaning.

4.Displacement

（1）Thereisnolimitintimeorspaceforlanguage.

（2）Languagecanbeusedtorefertothingsrealorimagined,past,presentorfuture.

5.Culturaltransmission

（1）Culturecannotbegeneticallytransmitted.Instead,itmustbelearned.

（2）Languageisawayoftransmittingculture.

6.Interchangeability

Allmembersofaspeechcommunitycansendandreceivemessages.

7.Reflexivity

（1）Humanlanguagescanbeusedtodescribethemselves.

（2）Thelanguageusedtotalkaboutlanguageiscalledmeta-language.

Ⅲ.Functionsoflanguage–threemeta-functions

1.Theideationalfunction

Toidentifythings,tothink,ortorecordinformation.

2.Theinterpersonalfunction

Togetalonginacommunity.

3.Thetextualfunction

Toformatext.

Ⅳ.Typesoflanguage

1.Geneticclassification

2.Typologicalclassification

（1）Analyticlanguage–noinflectionsorformalchanges,grammaticalrelationshipsareshownthroughwordorder,suchasChineseandVietnamese

（2）Syntheticlanguage–grammaticalrelationshipsareexpressedbychangingtheinternalstructureofthewords,typicallybychangingtheinflectionalendings,suchasEnglishandGerman

（3）Agglutinatinglanguage–wordsarebuiltoutofalongsequenceofunits,witheachunitexpressingaparticulargrammaticalmeaning,suchasJapaneseandTurkish

Ⅴ.Themythoflanguage–languageorigin

1.TheBiblicalaccount

LanguagewasGod’sgifttohumanbeings.

2.Thebow-wowtheory

Languagewasanimitationofnaturalsounds,suchasthecriesofanimals,likequack,cuckoo.

3.Thepooh-poohtheory

Languagearosefrominstinctiveemotionalcries,expressiveofpainorjoy.

4.Theyo-he-hotheory

Languagearosefromthenoisesmadebyagroupofpeopleengagedinjointlabouroreffort–liftingahugehuntedgame,movingarock,etc.

5.Theevolutiontheory

Languageoriginatedintheprocessoflabourandansweredthecallofsocialneed.

Ⅵ.Whatislinguistics?

1.Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.

（1）Observing&questioning

（2）Formulatinghypotheses

（3）Verifyingthehypotheses

（4）Proposingatheory

2.Branchesoflinguistics

（1）Internalbranches:

intra-disciplinarydivisions

⏹Phonetics

⏹Phonology

⏹Morphology

⏹Syntax

⏹Semantics

（2）Externalbranches:

inter-disciplinarydivisions

⏹Pragmatics

⏹Psycholinguistics

⏹Sociolinguistics

⏹Appliedlinguistics

⏹Computationallinguistics

⏹Neurolinguistics

3.Featuresoflinguistics

（1）Descriptive

（2）Dealingwithspokenlanguage

（3）Synchronic

Chapter2Phonetics

Ⅰ.Whatisphonetics?

1.Phoneticsistermedasthestudyofspeechsounds.

2.Sub-branchesofphonetics

（1）Articulatoryphonetics–theproductionofspeechsounds

（2）Acousticphonetics–thephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds

（3）Auditoryphonetics–theperceptivemechanismofspeechsounds

Ⅱ.Thespeechorgans

1.Wheredoestheairstreamcomefrom?

Fromthelung

2.Whatisthefunctionofvocalcords?

Controllingtheairstream

3.Whatarethecavities?

（1）Oralcavity

（2）Pharyngealcavity

（3）Nasalcavity

Ⅲ.Transcriptionofspeechsounds

1.Unitsofrepresentation

Segments（theindividualsounds）

2.Phoneticsymbols

（1）ThewidelyusedsymbolsforphonetictranscriptionofspeechsoundsistheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet（IPA）.

（2）TheIPAattemptstorepresenteachsoundofhumanspeechwithasinglesymbolandthesymbolsareenclosedinbracketstodistinguishphonetictranscriptionsfromthespellingsystemofalanguage.

（3）Inmoredetailedtranscription（narrowtranscription）asoundmaybetranscribedwithasymboltowhichasmallerisaddedinordertomarkthefinerdistinctions.

Ⅳ.Descriptionofspeechsounds

1.DescriptionofEnglishconsonants

（1）Generalfeature:

obstruction

（2）Criteriaofconsonantdescription

⏹Placesofarticulation

⏹Mannersofarticulation

⏹Voicingofarticulation

（3）Placesofarticulation

Thisreferstoeachpointatwhichtheairstreamcanbemodifiedtoproduceasound.

⏹Bilabial:

[p][b][m][w]

⏹Labiodental:

[f][v]

⏹Interdental:

[][]

⏹Alveolar:

[t][d][s][z][l][n][r]

⏹Palatal:

[][][t][d][j]

⏹Velar:

[k][g][]

⏹Glottal:

[h]

（4）Mannersofarticulation

Thisreferstohowtheairstreamismodified,whetheritiscompletelyblockedorpartiallyobstructed.

⏹Stops:

[p][b][t][d][k][g]

⏹Fricatives:

[s][z][][][f][v][][][h]

⏹Affricates:

[t][d]

⏹Liquids:

[l][r]

⏹Glides:

[w][j]

⏹Nasals:

[m][n][]

（5）Voicingofarticulation

Thisreferstothevibratingofthevocalcordswhensoundsareproduced.

⏹Voicedsounds

⏹Voicelesssounds

2.DescriptionofEnglishvowels

（1）Generalfeature:

withoutobstruction

（2）Criteriaofvoweldescription

A.Partofthetonguethatisraised

⏹Front

⏹Central

⏹Back

B.Extenttowhichthetonguerisesinthedirectionofthepalate

⏹High

⏹Mid

⏹Low

C.Kindofopeningmadeatthelips

D.Positionofthesoftpalate

（3）Singlevowels（monophthongs）anddiphthongs

Ⅴ.Phoneticfeaturesandnaturalclasses

1.Classesofsoundsthatshareafeatureorfeaturesarecallednaturalclasses.

2.Majorclassfeaturescanspecifysegmentsacrosstheconsonant-vowelboundary.

3.Classificationofsegmentsbyfeaturesisthebasisonwhichvariationsofsoundscanbeanalyzed.

Chapter3Phonology

Ⅰ.Whatisphonology?

1.Phonologyisthestudyofsoundsystemsandpatterns.

2.Phonologyandphoneticsaretwostudiesdifferentinperspectives,whichareconcernedwiththestudyofspeechsounds.

3.Phonologyfocusesonthreefundamentalquestions.

（1）Whatsoundsmakeupthelistofsoundsthatcandistinguishmeaninginaparticularlanguage?

（2）Whatsoundsvaryinwhatwaysinwhatcontext?

（3）Whatsoundscanappeartogetherinasequenceinaparticularlanguage

Ⅱ.Phonemesandallophones

1.Aphonemeisadistinctive,abstractsoundunitwithadistinctivefeature.

2.Thevariantsofaphonemearetermedallophones.

3.Weuseallophonestorealizephonemes.

Ⅲ.Discoveringphonemes

1.Contrastivedistribution–phonemes

（1）Ifsoundsappearinthesameenvironment,theyaresaidtobeincontrastivedistribution.

（2）Typicalcontrastivedistributionofsoundsisfoundinminimalpairsandminimalsets.

A.Aminimalpairconsistsoftwowordsthatdifferbyonlyonesoundinthesameposition.

B.Minimalsetsaremorethantwowordsthataredistinguishedbyonesegmentinthesameposition.

（3）TheoverwhelmingmajorityoftheconsonantsandvowelsrepresentedbytheEnglishphoneticalphabetareincontrastivedistribution.

（4）SomesoundscanhardlybefoundincontrastivedistributioninEnglish.However,thesesoundsaredistinctiveintermsofphoneticfeatures.Therefore,theyareseparatephonemes.

2.Complementarydistribution–allophones

（1）Soundsthatarenotfoundinthesamepositionaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.

（2）Ifsegmentsareincomplementarydistributionandshareanumberoffeatures,theyareallophonesofthesamephoneme.

3.Freevariation

Ifsegmentsappearinthesamepositionbutthemutualsubstitutiondoesnotresultinchangeofmeaning,theyaresaidtobeinfreevariation.

Ⅳ.Distinctiveandnon-distinctivefeatures

1.Featuresthatdistinguishmeaningarecalleddistinctivefeatures,andfeaturesdonot,non-distinctivefeatures.

2.Distinctivefeaturesinonelanguagemaybenon-distinctiveinanother.

Ⅴ.Phonologicalrules

1.Phonemesareabstractsoundunitsstoredinthemind,whileallophonesaretheactualpronunciationsinspeech.

2.Whatphonemeisrealizedbywhatallophonesinwhatspecificcontextisanothermajorquestioninphonology.

3.Theregularitiesthatwhatsoundsvaryinwhatwaysinwhatcontextaregeneralizedandstatedinphonologyasrules.

4.TherearemanyphonologicalrulesinEnglish.Takethefollowingonesasexamples.

A.[+voiced+consonant]–[-voiced]/[-voiced+consonant]_

B.[-voiced+bilabial+stop]–unaspirated/[-voiced+alveolar+fricative]_

Ⅵ.Syllablestructure

1.Asyllableisaphonologicalunitthatiscomposedofoneormorephonemes.

2.Everysyllablehasanucleus,whichisusuallyavowel.

3.Thenucleusmaybeprecededbyoneormoreconsonantscalledtheonsetandfollowed