外文翻译工程管理.docx
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外文翻译工程管理
工程管理专业毕业外文翻译(房地产)
QualityControl、SafetyDuringConstructionandCostControl
QualityandSafetyConcernsinConstruction
Qualitycontrolandsafetyrepresentincreasinglyimportantconcernsforprojectmanagers.Defectsorfailuresinconstructedfacilitiescanresultinverylargecosts.Evenwithminordefects,re-constructionmayberequiredandfacilityoperationsimpaired.Increasedcostsanddelaysaretheresult.Intheworsecase,failuresmaycausepersonalinjuriesorfatalities.Accidentsduringtheconstructionprocesscansimilarlyresultinpersonalinjuriesandlargecosts.Indirectcostsofinsurance,inspectionandregulationareincreasingrapidlyduetotheseincreaseddirectcosts.Goodprojectmanagerstrytoensurethatthejobisdonerightthefirsttimeandthatnomajoraccidentsoccursontheproject.
Aswithcostcontrol,themostimportantdecisionsregardingthequalityofacompletedfacilityaremadeduringthedesignandplanningstagesratherthanduringconstruction.Itisduringthesepreliminarystagesthatcomponentconfigurations,materialspecificationsandfunctionalperformancearedecided.Qualitycontrolduringconstructionconsistslargelyofinsuringconformancetotheseoriginaldesignandplanningdecisions.
Whileconformancetoexistingdesigndecisionsistheprimaryfocusofqualitycontrol,theseareexceptionstothisrule.First,unforeseencircumstances,incorrectdesigndecisionsorchangesdesiredbyanownerinthefacilityfunctionmayrequirere-evaluationofdesigndecisionsduringthecourseofconstruction.Whilethesechangesmaybemotivatedbytheconcernforquality,theyrepresentoccasionsforre-designwithalltheattendantobjectivesandconstraints.Asasecondcase,somedesignsrelyuponinformedandappropriatedecisionmakingduringtheconstructionprocessitself.Forexample,sometunnelingmethodsmakedecisionsabouttheamountofshoringrequiredatdifferentlocationsbaseduponobservationofsoilconditionsduringthetunnelingprocess.Sincesuchdecisionsarebasedonbetterinformationconcerningactualsiteconditions,thefacilitydesignmaybemorecosteffectiveasaresult.Anyspecialcaseofre-designduringconstructionrequiresthevariousconsiderationsdiscussed.
Withtheattentiontoconformanceasthemeasureofqualityduringtheconstructionprocess,thespecificationofqualityrequirementsinthedesignandcontractdocumentationbecomesextremelyimportant.Qualityrequirementsshouldbeclearandverifiable,sothatallpartiesintheprojectcanunderstandtherequirementsforconformance.
Safetyduringtheconstructionprojectisalsoinfluencedinlargepartbydecisionsmadeduringtheplanninganddesignprocess.Somedesignsorconstructionplansareinherentlydifficultanddangeroustoimplement,whereasother,comparableplansmayconsiderablyreducethepossibilityofaccidents.Forexample,clearseparationoftrafficfromconstructionzonesduringroadwayrehabilitationcangreatlyreducethepossibilityofaccidentalcollisions.Beyondthesedesigndecisions,safetylargelydependsuponeducation,vigilanceandcooperationduringtheconstructionprocess.Workersshouldbeconstantlyalerttothepossibilitiesofaccidentsandavoidtakenunnecessaryrisks.
TotalQualityControl
Qualitycontrolinconstructiontypicallyinvolvesinsuringcompliancewithminimumstandardsofmaterialandworkmanshipinordertoinsuretheperformanceofthefacilityaccordingtothedesign.Theseminimumstandardsarecontainedinthespecifications.Forthepurposeofinsuringcompliance,randomsamplesandstatisticalmethodsarecommonlyusedasthebasisforacceptingorrejectingworkcompletedandbatchesofmaterials.Rejectionofabatchisbasedonnon-conformanceorviolationoftherelevantdesignspecifications.
Animplicitassumptioninthesetraditionalqualitycontrolpracticesisthenotionofanacceptablequalitylevelwhichisaallowablefractionofdefectiveitems.Materialsobtainedfromsuppliersorworkperformedbyanorganizationisinspectedandpassedasacceptableiftheestimateddefectivepercentageiswithintheacceptablequalitylevel.Problemswithmaterialsorgoodsarecorrectedafterdeliveryoftheproduct.
Incontrasttothistraditionalapproachofqualitycontrolisthegoaloftotalqualitycontrol.Inthissystem,nodefectiveitemsareallowedanywhereintheconstructionprocess.Whilethezerodefectsgoalcanneverbepermanentlyobtained,itprovidesagoalsothatanorganizationisneversatisfiedwithitsqualitycontrolprogramevenifdefectsarereducedbysubstantialamountsyearafteryear.ThisconceptandapproachtoqualitycontrolwasfirstdevelopedinmanufacturingfirmsinJapanandEurope,buthassincespreadtomanyconstructioncompanies.
Totalqualitycontrolisacommitmenttoqualityexpressedinallpartsofanorganizationandtypicallyinvolvesmanyelements.Designreviewstoinsuresafeandeffectiveconstructionproceduresareamajorelement.Otherelementsincludeextensivetrainingforpersonnel,shiftingtheresponsibilityfordetectingdefectsfromqualitycontrolinspectorstoworkers,andcontinuallymaintainingequipment.Workersinvolvementinimprovedqualitycontrolisoftenformalizedinqualitycirclesinwhichgroupsofworkersmeetregularlytomakesuggestionsforqualityimprovement.Materialsuppliersarealsorequiredtoinsurezerodefectsindeliveredgoods.Initially,allmaterialsfromasupplierareinspectedandbatchesofgoodswithanydefectiveitemsarereturned.Supplierswithgoodrecordscanbecertifiedandnotsubjecttocompleteinspectionsubsequently.
Thetraditionalmicroeconomicviewofqualitycontrolisthatthereisan“optimum”proportionofdefectiveitems.Tryingtoachievegreaterqualitythanthisoptimumwouldsubstantiallyincreasecostsofinspectionandreduceworkerproductivity.However,manycompanieshavefoundthatcommitmenttototalqualitycontrolhassubstantialeconomicbenefitsthathadbeenunappreciatedintraditionalapproaches.Expensesassociatedwithinventory,rework,scrapandwarrantieswerereduced.Workerenthusiasmandcommitmentimproved.Customersoftenappreciatedhigherqualityworkandwouldpayapremiumforgoodquality.Asaresult,improvedqualitycontrolbecameacompetitiveadvantages.
Ofcourse,totalqualitycontrolisdifficulttoapply,particularinconstruction.Theuniquenatureofeachfacility,thevariabilityintheworkforce,themultitudeofsubcontractorsandthecostofmarkingnecessaryinvestmentsineducationandproceduresmakeprogramsoftotalqualitycontrolinconstructiondifficult.Nevertheless,acommitmenttoimprovedqualityevenwithoutendorsingthegoalofzerodefectscanpayrealdividendstoorganizations.
Safety
Constructionisarelativelyhazardousundertaking.Thesearesignificantlymoreinjuriesandlostworkdaysduetoinjuriesorillnessesinconstructionthaninvirtuallyanyotherindustry.Theseworkrelatedinjuriesandillnessesareexceedinglycostly.TheConstructionIndustryCostEffectivenessProjectestimatedthataccidentscost$8.9billionornearlysevenpercentofthe$137billion(in1979dollars)spentannuallyforindustrial,utilityandcommercialconstructionintheUnitedStates.Includedinthistotalaredirectcosts(medicalcosts,premiumsforworkers’compensationbenefits,liabilityandpropertylosses)aswellasindirectcosts(reducedworkerproductivity,delaysinprojects,administrativetime,anddamagetoequipmentandthefacility).Incontrasttomostindustrialaccidents,innocentbystandersmayalsobeinjuredbyconstructionhaveresultedinfatalitiestopasserby’s.Prudentprojectmanagersandownerswouldliketoreduceaccidents,injuriesandillnessesasmuchaspossible.
Aswithalltheothercostsofconstruction,itisamistakeforownerstoignoreasignificantcategoryofcostssuchasinjuryandillness.Whilecontractorsmaypayinsurancepremiumsdirectly,thesecostsarereflectedinbidpricesorcontractamounts.Delayscausedbyinjuriesandillnessescanpresentsignificantopportunitycoststoowners.Inthelongrun,theownersofconstructedfacilitiesmustpayallthecostsofconstruction.Forthecaseofinjuriesandillnesses,thisgeneralprinciplemightbeslightlyqualifiedsincesignificantcostsarebornebyworkersthemselvesorsocietyatlarge.However,courtjudgmentsandinsurancepaymentscompensateforindividuallossesandultimatelybornebytheowners.
Variousmeasuresareavailabletoimprovejobsitesafetyinconstruction.Severalofthemostimportantoccurbeforeconstructionisundertaken.Theseincludedesign,choiceoftechnologyandeducation.Byalteringfacilitydesigns,particularstructurescanbesaferormorehazardoustoconstruct.Forexample,parapetscanbedesignedtoappropriateheightsforconstructionworkersafety,ratherthantheminimumheightrequiredbybuildingcodes.
Choiceoftechnologycanalsobecriticalindeterminingthesafetyofajobsite.Safeguardsbuiltintomachinerycannotifyoperatorsofproblemsorpreventinjuries.Forexample,simpleswitchescanpreventequipmentfrombeingoperatingwhenprotectiveshieldsarenotinplace.Withtheavailabilityofon-boardelectronics(includingcomputerchips)andsensors,thepossibilitiesforsophisticatedmachinecontrollersandmonitorshasgreatlyexpandedforconstructionequipmentandtools.Materialandworkprocesschoicesalsoinfluencethesafetyofconstruction.Forexample,substitutionofalternativematerialforasbestoscanreduceoreliminatetheprospectsoflongtermillnessessuchasasbestosis.
Educatingworkersandmanagersinproperproceduresandhazardscanhaveadirectimpactonj