语言学导论课后习题答案.docx
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语言学导论课后习题答案
Chapter4Morphology
lWhatismorphology?
nThetotalnumberofwordsstoredinthebrainiscalledthelexicon.
nWordsarethesmallestfreeunitsoflanguagethatunitesoundswithmeaning.
nMorphologyisdefinedasthestudyoftheinternalstructureandtheformationofwords.
lMorphemesandallomorphs
nThesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguageiscalledamorpheme.
nAmorphememayberepresentedbydifferentforms,calledallomorphs.
n“zero”formofamorphemeandsuppletives
uSomecountablenounsdonotchangeformtoexpressplurality.Similarly,someregularverbsdonotchangeformtoindicatepasttense.Inthesetwocases,thenounorverbcontainstwomorphemes,amongwhichthereisone“zeroform”ofamorpheme.
uSomeverbshaveirregularchangeswhentheyareinpasttense.Inthiscase,theverbsalsohavetwomorphemes.Wordswhicharenotrelatedinformtoindicategrammaticalcontrastwiththeirrootsarecalledsuppletives.
lFreeandboundmorphemes
nSomemorphemesconstitutewordsbythemselves.Thesemorphemesarecalledfreemorphemes.
nOthermorphemesareneverusedindependentlyinspeechandwriting.Theyarealwaysattachedtofreemorphemestoformnewwords.Thesemorphemesarecalledboundmorphemes.
nThedistinctionbetweenafreemorphemesandaboundmorphemeiswhetheritcanbeusedindependentlyinspeechorwriting.
nFreemorphemesaretherootsofwords,whileboundmorphemesaretheaffixes(prefixesandsuffixes).
lInflexionalandderivationalmorphemes
nInflexionalmorphemesinmodernEnglishindicatecaseandnumberofnouns,tenseandaspectofverbs,anddegreeofadjectivesandadverbs.
nDerivationalmorphemesareboundmorphemesaddedtoexistingformstoconstructnewwords.
uEnglishaffixesaredividedintoprefixesandsuffixes.
uSomelanguageshaveinfixes,boundmorphemeswhichareinsertedintoothermorphemes.
uTheprocessofputtingaffixestoexistingformstocreatenewwordsiscalledderivation.Wordsthusformedarecalledderivatives.
lConclusion:
classificationofmorphemes
nMorphemes
uFreemorphemes
uBoundmorphemes
lInflexional
lDerivational:
affixes
nPrefixes:
-s,-’s,-er,-est,-ing,-ed,-s
nSuffixes
lFormationofnewwords
nDerivation
uDerivationformsawordbyaddinganaffixtoafreemorpheme.
uSincederivationcanapplymorethanonce,itispossibletocreateaderivedwordwithanumberofaffixes.Forexample,ifweaddaffixestothewordfriend,wecanformbefriend,friendly,unfriendly,friendliness,unfriendliness,etc.Thisprocessofaddingmorethanoneaffixtoafreemorphemeistermedcomplexderivation.
uDerivationdoesnotapplyfreelytoanywordofagivencategory.Generallyspeaking,affixescannotbeaddedtomorphemesofadifferentlanguageorigin.
uDerivationisalsoconstrainedbyphonologicalfactors.
uSomeEnglishsuffixesalsochangethewordstress.
nCompounding
uCompoundingisanothercommonwaytoformwords.Itisthecombinationoffreemorphemes.
uThemajorityofEnglishcompoundsarethecombinationofwordsfromthethreeclasses–nouns,verbsandadjectives–andfallintothethreeclasses.
uIncompounds,therightmostmorphemedeterminesthepartofspeechoftheword.
uThemeaningofcompoundsisnotalwaysthesumofmeaningofthecomponents.
nConversion
uConversionistheprocessputtinganexistingwordofoneclassintoanotherclass.
uConversionisusuallyfoundinwordscontainingonemorpheme.
nClipping
uClippingisaprocessthatshortensapolysyllabicwordbydeletingoneormoresyllables.
uClippedwordsareinitiallyusedinspokenEnglishoninformaloccasions.
uSomeclippedwordshavebecomewidelyaccepted,andareusedeveninformalstyles.Forexample,thewordsbus(omnibus),vet(veterinarian),gym(gymnasium),fridge(refrigerator)andfax(facsimile)arerarelyusedintheircompleteform.
nBlending
uBlendingisaprocessthatcreatesnewwordsbyputtingtogethernon-morphemicpartsofexistingwords.Forexample,smog(smoke+frog),brunch(amealinthemiddleofmorning,replacingbothbreakfastandlunch),motel(motor+hotel).Thereisalsoaninterestingwordinthetextbookforjuniormiddleschoolstudents–“plike”(akindofmachinethatislikebothaplaneandabike).
nBack-formation
uBack-formationistheprocessthatcreatesanewwordbydroppingarealorsupposedsuffix.Forexample,thewordteleviseisback-formedfromtelevision.Originally,thewordtelevisionisformedbyputtingtheprefixtele-(far)totherootvision(viewing).Atthesametime,thereisasuffix–sioninEnglishindicatingnouns.Thenpeopleconsiderthe–sioninthewordtelevisionasthatsuffixanddropittoformtheverbtelevise.
nAcronymsandabbreviations
uAcronymsandabbreviationsareformedbyputtingtogethertheinitiallettersofallwordsinaphraseortitle.
uAcronymscanbereadasawordandareusuallylongerthanabbreviations,whicharereadletterbyletter.
uThistypeofwordformationiscommoninnamesoforganizationsandscientificterminology.
nEponyms
uEponymsarewordsthatoriginatefrompropernamesofindividualsorplaces.Forexample,thewordsandwichisacommonnounoriginatingfromthefourthEarlofSandwich,whoputhisfoodbetweentwoslicesofbreadsothathecouldeatwhilegambling.
nCoinage
uCoinageisaprocessofinventingwordsnotbasedonexistingmorphemes.
uThiswayofwordformationisespeciallycommonincaseswhereindustryrequiresawordforanewproduct.Forexample,KodakandCoca-cola.
nFormoredetailedexplanationtothewaysofwordformation,seemynotesofPracticalEnglishGrammar.
转自[英美者]-英语专业网站:
cs/86983.html
Chapter3Phonology
lWhatisphonology?
nPhonologyisthestudyofsoundsystemsandpatterns.
nPhonologyandphoneticsaretwostudiesdifferentinperspectives,whichareconcernedwiththestudyofspeechsounds.
nPhonologyfocusesonthreefundamentalquestions.
uWhatsoundsmakeupthelistofsoundsthatcandistinguishmeaninginaparticularlanguage?
uWhatsoundsvaryinwhatwaysinwhatcontext?
uWhatsoundscanappeartogetherinasequenceinaparticularlanguage?
lPhonemesandallophones
nAphonemeisadistinctive,abstractsoundunitwithadistinctivefeature.
nThevariantsofaphonemearetermedallophones.
nWeuseallophonestorealizephonemes.
lDiscoveringphonemes
nContrastivedistribution–phonemes
uIfsoundsappearinthesameenvironment,theyaresaidtobeincontrastivedistribution.
uTypicalcontrastivedistributionofsoundsisfoundinminimalpairsandminimalsets.
lAminimalpairconsistsoftwowordsthatdifferbyonlyonesoundinthesameposition.
lMinimalsetsaremorethantwowordsthataredistinguishedbyonesegmentinthesameposition.
uTheoverwhelmingmajorityoftheconsonantsandvowelsrepresentedbytheEnglishphoneticalphabetareincontrastivedistribution.
uSomesoundscanhardlybefoundincontrastivedistributioninEnglish.However,thesesoundsaredistinctiveintermsofphoneticfeatures.Therefore,theyareseparatephonemes.
nComplementarydistribution–allophones
uSoundsthatarenotfoundinthesamepositionaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.
uIfsegmentsareincomplementarydistributionandshareanumberoffeatures,theyareallophonesofthesamephoneme.
nFreevariation
uIfsegmentsappearinthesamepositionbutthemutualsubstitutiondoesnotresultinchangeofmeaning,theyaresaidtobeinfreevariation.
lDistinctiveandnon-distinctivefeatures
nFeaturesthatdistinguishmeaningarecalleddistinctivefeatures,andfeaturesdonot,non-distinctivefeatures.
nDistinctivefeaturesinonelanguagemaybenon-distinctiveinanother.
lPhonologicalrules
nPhonemesareabstractsoundunitsstoredinthemind,whileallophonesaretheactualpronunciationsinspeech.
nWhatphonemeisrealizedbywhatallophonesinwhatspecificcontextisanothermajorquestioninphonology.
nTheregularitiesthatwhatsoundsvaryinwhatwaysinwhatcontextaregeneralizedandstatedinphonologyasrules.
nTherearemanyphonologicalrulesinEnglish.Takethefollowingonesasexamples.
l[+voiced+consonant]–[-voiced]/[-voiced+consonant]_
l[-voiced+bilabial+stop]–unaspirated/[-voiced+alveolar+fricative]_
lSyllablestructure
nAsyllableisaphonologicalunitthatiscomposedofoneormorephonemes.
nEverysyllablehasanucleus,whichisusuallyavowel.
nThenucleusmaybeprecededbyoneormoreconsonantscalledtheonsetandfollowedbyoneormoreconsonantscalledthecoda.
lSequenceofphonemes
nNativespeakersofanylanguageintuitivelyknowwhatsoundscanbeputtogether.
nSomesequencesarenotpossibleinEnglish.Theimpossiblesequencesarecalledsystematicgaps.
nSequencesthatarepossiblebutdonotoccuryetarecalledaccidentalgaps.
nWhennewwordsarecoined,theymayfillsomeaccidentalgapsbuttheywillneverfillsystematicgaps.
lSuprasegmentalfeatures
nFeaturesthatarefoundoverasegmentorasequenceoftwoormoresegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.
nThesefeaturesaredistinctivefeatures.
nStress
uStressistheperceivedprominenceofoneormoresyllabicelementsoverothersinaword.
uStressisarelativenotion.Onlywordsthatarecomposedoftwoormoresyllableshavestress.
uIfawordhasthreeormoresyllables,thereisaprimarystressandasecondarystress.
uInsomelanguageswordstressisfixed,i.e.onacertainsyllable.InEnglish,wordstressisunpredictable.
nIntonation
uWhenwespeak,wechangethepitchofourvoicetoexpressideas.
uIntonationisthevariationofpitchtodistinguishutterancemeanin