语言学五章之后.docx

语言学五章之后.docx

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语言学五章之后

Chapter5Semantics

1.Whatissemantics?

2.Someviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning3.Lexicalmeaning4.Majorsenserelations5.Senserelationsbetweensentences6.Analysisofmeaning

1.Whatissemantics?

Semantics----thestudyoflanguagemeaning.

Whatismeaning?

Meaningiscentraltothestudyofcommunication.

2.Someviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning

Namingtheory（Plato）命名论Theconceptualistview概念论Contextualism（Firth）情景论Behaviorism（Bloomfield）行为论

Namingtheory（Plato）

Wordsarenamesorlabelsforthings.ItwasproposedbytheancientGreekscholarPlato.

Limitations:

1）Applicabletonounsonly.2）Therearenounswhichdenotethingsthatdonotexistintherealworld,e.g.ghost,dragon,unicorn独角兽,…3）Therearenounsthatdonotrefertophysicalobjects

butabstractnotions,e.g.joy,impulse,hatred…

Theconceptualistview

Theconceptualistviewholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto（i.e.betweenlanguageandtherealworld）;rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.

OgdenandRichards:

semantictriangle

Thought/reference/concept

Symbol/formReferent/objectintheworldofexperience

word/phrase/sentence

Thesymbolorformreferstothelinguisticelements（wordsandphrases）;

Thereferentreferstotheobjectintheworldofexperience;

Thoughtorreferencereferstoconcept.

Semantictriangle语义三角:

aparticularmodelofmeaningproposedbytheAmerican

linguistsOgden&Richardsinthe1920sinTheMeaningofMeaningwhichclaimsthatmeaningisessentiallyathreefoldrelationshipbetweenlinguisticform,concept&referent.

三角形说明以下几点:

）.Concept（概念）/Thought是和Referent（所指物）/Thing相互联系的。

这种联系是直接的联系。

Concept是在客观事物的基础上概括成的；换句话说，Concept是客观事物在人们头脑中的反映。

因此，在三角形中Concept和Referent之间画了一条实线，表示Aconceptrefersareferent.概念是反映客观事物的。

2）.Concept和Symbol/Word之间也有直接的联系。

Concept是抽象的，它要通过Symbol才能表达出来；换句话说，词是用来表达概念的。

因此，在三角形中Concept和Symbol之间画了一条实线，表示Awordsymbolizesaconcept.词是表达概念的。

3）.Symbol和Referent之间没有直接的,必然的联系；也就是说，它们之间的联系带有“任意性”或是“约定俗成”的因此，Symbol和Referent之间画了一条虚线，表示Awordstandsfora

referent.词是代表所指事物的。

正是由于Symbol和Referent之间没有必然的联系，所以同一事物可以用不同的词来表示。

如：

“狗”英：

dog;德：

hund；西：

pero.如果客观事物与词之间有直接的,必然的联系，那么某一事物就必然只有一个名称

Thecontextualism

Meaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,context—elementscloselylinkedwithlanguagebehavior.meaningiscontext,thatis,meaningisfoundinthecontextwithinwhicha

linguistJohnexpressionFirth.isuttered.ArepresentativeofthisapproachwastheBritish

Twotypesofcontextsarerecognized:

Situationalcontext:

spatiotemporal时空a

situationinwhichanutteranceoccurs.Itsmaincomponentsincludethetime&place,thespeaker,hearer,theactionstheyareperforming,&thevariousobjects,eventsexistedinthesituation;alsosettings;mediumetc.

situation;alsosettings;mediumetc.

Linguisticcontext:

theprobabilityofaword’scooccurrence共现orcollocation搭配withanotherword

eg.1.“black”inblackhair&blackcoffee,orblacksheepdiffersinmeaning;“Thepresident

oftheUnitedStates”canmeaneitherthepresidentorpresidencyindifferentsituation.

2.A.Thesealcouldnotbefound.Thezookeeperbecameworried.

（seal:

anaquaticmammal海豹）B.Thesealcouldnotbefound.Thekingbecameworried.

（seal:

theking’sstamp玉玺）

Behaviorism

Behavioristsattemptedtodefinemeaningas“thesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer”.Themeaningofanexpressionisthestimulus刺激thatcausestheutteranceinaparticularsituation.Closetocontextualism,itislinkedwithpsychologicalinterest.ItisillustratedbyBloomfield’s“stimulusandrespond”storyaboutJackandJill:

SeeP71

Jill

Jack

S_________r--------s_________R

3.Lexicalmeaning

Sense意义&reference所指arebothconcernedwiththestudyofwordmeaning.Theyaretworelatedbutdifferentaspectsofmeaning.

Sense----isconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.Itisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractanddecontextualized.Itistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersareinterestedin.

Reference----whatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.

eg.“cat”:

asmallanimalwithsoftfurandsharpteethandclaws,oftenkeptasapetorinbuildingstocatchmiceandrats.Yourcatisverylovely.

Note:

Linguisticformshavingthesamesensemayhavedifferentreferencesindifferentsituations;

---Iwasoncebittenbyadog.

---Mindyou.Thereisadogoverthere.

ontheotherhand,therearealsooccasions,whenlinguisticformswiththesamereferencemightdifferinsense,e.g.morningstar:

Venus;eveningstar:

thesamestarinthesky

水星和金星只能在黄昏或黎明前后见到，分别称为“昏星”和“晨星”。

金星为晨星时“启明”，为昏星时叫长庚星。

民间统称为太白星或太白金星。

4.Majorsenserelations

SynonymyAntonymyPolysemyHomonymyHyponymy

Synonymy

Synonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.

1）Dialectalsynonyms----synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects,e.g.

BritishEnglishAmericanEnglish

Autumnfall

Liftelevator

Luggagebaggage

Lorrytruck

Railroadrailway

Sidewalkpavement

Chemistdruggist

Helpservant

pavementdruggistservant

2）Stylisticsynonyms----wordsmayhavesimilardenotativemeaning,butdifferentstylisticmeanings.Formal----informal

eg.die/passaway/popoff/deceasekid,child,offspring;start,begin,commence;room,chamber

3）Synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning,e.g.small/little;politician/statesman,…

4）Collocationalsynonyms,somewordsareonlycollocationallyrestricted,i.e.theyoccuronlyinconjunctionwithotherwords.eg.rancid（baconorbutter）/addled（egg）;deep/profound（profoundsympathy,butdeepwater）;broad/wide（wideroad,broadaccent）accuse…of,charge…with,rebuke…for;…

rancid（baconorbutter）/addled（egg）;deep/profound（profoundsympathy,butdeepwater）;broad/wide（wideroad,broadaccent）accuse…of,charge…with,rebuke…for;…

5）Semanticallydifferentsynonyms,manywordsareclosetoeachotherbutslightlydifferentinmeaning,eg.

/adult/ripe/perfect;govern/control/determine/require;amaze/astound,…Thesearealsocallednearsynonyms.

Antonymy

Antonyms:

theoppositenessofmeaning.Wordsthatareoppositeareantonyms.

Gradableantonyms----thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,e.g.oldyoung,hot-cold,tall-short,…

Complementaryantonyms----thedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother,e.g.alive-dead,male-female,…

Relationalopposites----exhibitsthereversaloftherelationshipbetweenthetwoitems,e.g.husband-wife,father-son,doctor-patient,buy-sell,let-rent,employeremployee,give-receive,above-below,in-out,updown…

Gradableantonyms

Gradableantonyms----thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,e.g.old-young,hot-cold,tall-short,…membersofapair,e.g.old-young,hot-cold,tall-short,…

Complementaryantonyms

Complementaryantonyms-

--thedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother,e.g.alive-dead,male-female,…

Polysemy

Polysemy----thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning,e.g.

mouth:

sea.anorganofthehumanbody;theentrancetoacave;theplacewheretheriverjoinsthe

Homonymy

Homonymy----thephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,e.g.differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.

Homophone----whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,e.g.rain-reign,night/knight,…Homogragh----whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,e.g.tear（n.）-tear（v.）,lead（n.）-lead（v.）,…Completehomonym----whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,e.g.ball,bank,watch,scale,fast,…

Hyponymy

Hyponymy下义词----thesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.

Superordinate上义词:

thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaning.

Hyponyms下义词:

thewordwhichismorespecificinmeaning.

Co-hyponyms并列下义词:

hyponymsofthesamesuperordinate.

Superordinate:

flower

Hyponyms:

rose,tulip郁金香,lily百合,chrysanthemum菊花,peony牡丹,narcissus水仙,…

Superordinate:

furniture

Hyponyms:

bed,table,desk,dresser,wardrobe,sofa,…

5.Senserelationsbetweensentences

（1）XissynonymouswithY

（2）XisinconsistentwithY（3）XentailsY

（4）XpresupposesY（5）Xisacontradiction（6）Xissemanticallyanomalous

XissynonymouswithY

X:

Hewasanorphan.Y:

Hehasn\tgotanyparents.

IfXistrue,Yistrue;ifXisfalse,Yisfalse.

XisinconsistentwithY

X:

Heissingle.Y:

Hehasawife.

IfXistrue,Yisfalse;ifXisfalse,Yistrue.

XentailsY

Entailment蕴含:

twopropositionswhichdifferonlyinthatanargumentofoneishyponymoustoanargumentoftheother.Shesawagirlentailsshesawachild.Hyponymyinvolvesentailment.eg.ThisisaroseentailsThisisaflower.HelikesswimmingentailsHelikessports.

Examples:

X:

Hesawagirl.Y:

Hesawachild.

X:

MarryhasbeentoBeijing.Y:

MarryhasbeentoChina.

Entailmentisarelationofinclusion.IfXentailsY,thenthemeaningofXisincludedinY.

IfXistrue,Yisnecessarilytrue;ifXisfalse,Ymaybetrueorfalse.

XpresupposesY

thekindofmeaningwhichthespeakerdoesn’tassertbutassumesthehearercanidentifyfromthesentence.

eg.Iamgladthatyoucameyesterday.---Youcame