schopenhauer.docx

schopenhauer.docx

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schopenhauer

ArthurSchopenhauer （22February1788 –21September1860）wasa German philosopher knownforhisatheisticpessimism andphilosophicalclarity.Atage25,hepublishedhisdoctoraldissertation, OntheFourfoldRootofthePrincipleofSufficientReason,whichexaminedthefundamentalquestionofwhetherreasonalonecanunlockanswersabouttheworld.

Schopenhauer'smostinfluentialwork, TheWorldasWillandRepresentation,emphasizedtheroleofman'sbasicmotivation,whichSchopenhauercalled will.Hisanalysisofwillledhimtotheconclusionthatemotional,physical,andsexualdesirescanneverbefulfilled.Consequently,hefavoredalifestyleofnegatinghumandesires,similartotheteachingsofancientGreek Stoic philosophers, Buddhism,and Vedanta.

Schopenhauer's metaphysical analysisofwill,hisviewsonhuman motivation anddesire,andhis aphoristic writingstyleinfluencedmanywell-knownthinkersincluding FriedrichNietzsche,[2] RichardWagner, LudwigWittgenstein,ErwinSchrödinger, AlbertEinstein,[3] SigmundFreud, OttoRank, CarlGustavJung, LeoTolstoy,and JorgeLuisBorges.

ArthurSchopenhauerwasborninthecityof Danzig （Gdańsk）asthesonofHeinrichFlorisSchopenhauerand JohannaSchopenhauer,[4] bothdescendantsofwealthyGerman Patrician families.Whenthe KingdomofPrussia acquiredthe Polish-LithuanianCommonwealth cityofDanzigin1793,Schopenhauer'sfamilymovedto Hamburg.In1805,Schopenhauer'sfathermighthavecommittedsuicide.[5] Schopenhauer'smotherJohannashortlyaftermovedto Weimar,thenthecentreof Germanliterature,topursueherwritingcareer.Afteroneyear,SchopenhauerleftthefamilybusinessinHamburgtojoinher.

Schopenhauerbecameastudentatthe UniversityofGöttingen in1809.Therehestudied metaphysics and psychology underGottlobErnstSchulze,theauthorof Aenesidemus,whoadvisedhimtoconcentrateon Plato and Kant.InBerlin,from1811to1812,hehadattendedlecturesbytheprominentpost-Kantianphilosopher J.G.Fichte andthetheologian Schleiermacher.

In1814,Schopenhauerbeganhisseminalwork TheWorldasWillandRepresentation （DieWeltalsWilleundVorstellung）.Hewouldfinishitin1818andpublishitthefollowingyear.InDresden in1819,Schopenhauerfatheredanillegitimatechildwhowasbornanddiedthesameyear.[6][7] In1820,Schopenhauerbecamealectureratthe UniversityofBerlin.Hescheduledhislecturestocoincidewiththoseofthefamousphilosopher G.W.F.Hegel,whomSchopenhauerdescribedasa"clumsycharlatan".[8] However,onlyfivestudentsturneduptoSchopenhauer'slectures,andhedroppedoutofacademia.Alateessay,"OnUniversityPhilosophy",expressedhisresentmenttowardsuniversityphilosophy.

WhileinBerlin,SchopenhauerwasnamedasadefendantinanactionatlawinitiatedbyawomannamedCarolineMarquet.[2] Sheaskedfordamages,allegingthatSchopenhauerhadpushedher.AccordingtoSchopenhauer'scourttestimony,shedeliberatelyannoyedhimbyraisinghervoicewhilestandingrightoutsidehisdoor.[9] Marquetallegedthatthephilosopherhadassaultedandbatteredheraftersherefusedtoleavehisdoorway.HercompaniontestifiedthatshesawMarquetprostrateoutsidehisapartment.BecauseMarquetwonthelawsuit,hemadepaymentstoherforthenexttwentyyears.[10] Whenshedied,hewroteonacopyofherdeathcertificate, Obitanus,abitonus （"Theoldwomandies,theburdenflies"）.[11]

In1821,hefellinlovewithnineteen-yearoldoperasinger,CarolineRichter（calledMedon）,andhadarelationshipwithherforseveralyears.Hediscardedmarriageplans,however,writing,"Marryingmeanstohalveone'srightsanddoubleone'sduties",and"Marryingmeans,tograspblindfoldedintoasackhopingtofindoutaneeloutofanassemblyofsnakes."Whenhewasforty-threeyearsold,seventeen-yearoldFloraWeissrecordedrejectinghiminherdiary.[12]

SchopenhauerhadanotablystrainedrelationshipwithhismotherJohannaSchopenhauer.Afterhisfather'sdeath,ArthurSchopenhauerenduredtwolongyearsofdrudgeryasamerchant,inhonorofhisdeadfather.Afterward,hismotherretiredtoWeimar,andArthurdedicatedhimselfwhollytostudiesinthegymnasiumofGotha.Afterheleftitindisgustafterseeingoneofthemasterslampooned,hewenttolivewithhismother.Butbythattimeshehadalreadyopenedherinfamoussalon,andArthurwasnotcompatiblewiththevain,ceremoniouswaysofthesalon.HewasalsodisgustedbytheeasewithwhichJohannahadforgottenhisfather'smemory.Therefore,hegaveuniversitylifeashot.There,hewrotehisfirstbook, OntheFourfoldRootofthePrincipleofSufficientReason.Sheinformedhimthatthebookwasincomprehensibleanditwasunlikelythatanyonewouldeverbuyacopy.InafitoftemperArthurtoldherthathisworkwouldbereadlongaftertherubbishshewrotewouldhavebeentotallyforgotten.[13][14]

In1831,a cholera epidemicbrokeoutinBerlinandSchopenhauerleftthecity.SchopenhauersettledpermanentlyinFrankfurt in1833,whereheremainedforthenexttwenty-sevenyears,livingaloneexceptforasuccessionofpetpoodlesnamedAtmanandButz.Thenumerousnotesthathemadeduringtheseyears,amongstothersonaging,werepublished posthumously underthetitle Senilia.

Schopenhauerhadarobustconstitution,butin1860hishealthbegantodeteriorate.Hediedofheartfailureon21September1860,whilesittinginhisarmchairathome.Hewas72.

Thought

Philosophyofthe"will"

AkeyfocusofSchopenhauerwashisinvestigationofindividualmotivation.BeforeSchopenhauer,Hegelhadpopularizedtheconceptof Zeitgeist,theideathatsocietyconsistedofa collectiveconsciousness whichmovedinadistinctdirection,dictatingtheactionsofitsmembers.Schopenhauer,areaderofbothKantandHegel,criticizedtheirlogicaloptimismandthebeliefthatindividualmoralitycouldbedeterminedbysocietyandreason.Schopenhauerbelievedthathumansweremotivatedonlybytheirownbasicdesires,or WillezumLeben （WilltoLive）,whichdirectedallofmankind.[15] ForSchopenhauer,humandesirewasfutile,illogical,directionless,and,byextension,sowasallhumanactionintheworld.ToSchopenhauer,theWillisametaphysicalexistencewhichcontrolsnotonlytheactionsofindividual,intelligentagents,butultimatelyallobservablephenomena.Will,forSchopenhauer,iswhatKantcalledthe"thing-in-itself".

Artandaesthetics

Mainarticle:

 ArthurSchopenhauer'saesthetics

ForSchopenhauer,humandesiring,"willing,"andcravingcause sufferingorpain.Atemporarywaytoescapethispainisthroughaestheticcontemplation（amethodcomparableto Zapffe's"Sublimation"）.Thisisthenextbestway,shortofnotwillingatall,whichisthebestway.Totalabsorptionintheworldasrepresentationpreventsapersonfromsufferingtheworldaswill.Artdivertsthespectator'sattentionfromthegraveeverydayworldandliftsthemintoaworldthatconsistsofmereplayofimages.Withmusic,theauditorbecomesengrossedwithaplayfulformofthewill,whichisnormallydeadlyserious. Music wasalsogivenaspecialstatusinSchopenhauer'saestheticsasitdidnotrelyuponthemediumofphenomenalrepresentation.Musicartisticallypresentsthewillitself,notthewaythatthewillappearstoanindividualobserver.AccordingtoDanielAlbright,"Schopenhauerthoughtthat music wastheonlyartthatdidnotmerelycopyideas,butactuallyembodiedthewillitself."[16]

Ethics

Schopenhauer'smoraltheoryproposedthatofthreeprimarymoralincentives, compassion, malice and egoism,compassionisthemajormotivatortomoralexpression.Maliceandegoismarecorruptalternatives.

Punishment

AccordingtoSchopenhauer,wheneverwemakeachoice,"weassumeasnecessarythatthatdecisionwasprecededbysomethingfromwhichitensued,andwhichwecallthegroundorreason,ormoreaccuratelythemotive,oftheresultantaction." [17] Choicesarenotmadefreely.Ouractionsarenecessaryanddeterminedbecause"everyhumanbeing,eveneveryanimal,afterthemotivehasappeared,mustcarryouttheactionwhichaloneisinaccordancewithhisinbornandimmutablecharacter." [18] Adefiniteactioninevitablyresultswhenaparticularmotiveinfluencesaperson'sgiven,unchangeablecharacter.Ifthereisnofreewill,shouldcrimesbepunished?

TheState,Schopenhauerclaimed,punishescriminalsinordertopreventfuturecrimes.Itdoessobyplacing"besideeverypossiblemotiveforcommittingawrongamorepowerfulmotiveforleavingitundone,intheinescapablepunishment.Accordingly,thecriminalcodeisascompletearegisteraspossibleofcounter–motivestoallcriminalactionsthatcanpossiblybeimagined…." [19]

DoestheStateseekrevengeforacrime?

"…thelawanditsfulfillment,namelypunishment,aredirectedessentiallytothe future,nottothe past.Thisdistinguishes punishmentfrom revenge,forrevengeismotivatedbywhathashappened,andhencebythepastassuch.Allretaliationforwrongbyinflictingapainwithoutanyobjectforthefutureisrevenge,andcanhavenootherpurposethanconsolationforthesufferingonehasenduredbythesightofthesufferingonehascausedinanother.Suchathingiswickednessandcruelty,andcannotbeethicallyjustified.…theobjectofpunishment…isdeterrencefromcrime….Objectandpurposeforthefuturedistinguishpunishmentfromrevenge,andpunishmenthasthisobjectonlywhenitisinflicted infulfillmentofalaw.Onlyinthiswaydoesitproclaimitselftobeinevitableandinfallibleforeveryfuturecase;andthusitobtainsforthelawthepowertodeter…."

[20] [21]

Shouldcapitalpunishmentbelegal?

"Forsafeguardingthelivesofcitizen