语言学知识.docx

语言学知识.docx

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语言学知识

Linguistics

Phonetics施金江王明华诸时俊

1.Phoneticsstudieshowthespeechsoundsareproduced,transmittedandperceived.

2.ArticulatoryPhonetics:

it’sthestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds.

3.AcousticPhonetics:

It’sthestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeech.

4.AuditoryPhonetics:

Itisconcernedwiththeperceptionofthesoundsproducedinspeech.

5.SpeechOrgans:

vocalcordsandthreecavitieswhicharethepharynx,theoralcavityandthenasalcavity.Thevocalcordsareinthelarynx,thefrontpartofwhichiscalled“theAdam’sApple.”

6.Consonantsareproducedbyobstructingtheairstreaminthethroat,thenoseorthemouthinonewayortheother.

7.Placeofarticulationmeanswhereinthevocaltracttheairflowrestrictionoccurs.

8.Mannerofarticulationmeanshowinthevocaltracttheairflowrestrictionoccurs.

9.Stop:

completeclosureofthearticulatorsinvolvedsothattheairstreamcannotescapethroughthemouth.

10.Fricative:

closeapproximationoftwoarticulatorssothattheair-streamispartiallyobstructedandturbulentairflowisproduced.

11.Affricates:

Affricatesinvolvemorethanoneofthesemannersofarticulationinthattheyconsistofastopfollowedimmediatelyafterwardsbyafricativeatthesameplaceofarticulation.

12.Lateral:

obstructionoftheairstreamatapointalongthecenteroftheoraltract,withincompleteclosurebetweenoneorbothsidesofthetongueandtheroofofthemouth.

13.Approximant:

anarticulationinwhichonearticulatorisclosetoanother,butwithoutthevocaltractbeingnarrowedtosuchanextentthataturbulentairstreamisproduced.

14.Bilabial:

madewithtwolips.

15.Labiodental:

madewiththelowerlipandtheupperfrontteeth.

16.Dental:

madebythetonguetipandtheupperfrontteeth.

17.Alveolar:

madewiththetonguetiporbladeandthealveolarridge.

18.Palatal:

madewiththefrontofthetongueandthehardpalate.

19.Velar:

madewiththebackofthetongueandthesoftpalate.

20.Glottal:

madewiththetwopiecesofvocalfoldspushedtowardseachother.

21.Postalveolar:

madewiththetonguetipandthebackofthealveolarridge.

22.Retroflex:

madewiththetonguetiporbladecurledback.

23.Velar:

madewiththebackofthetongueandtheuvula,theshortprojectionofsofttissueandmuscleattheposteriorendofthevelum.

24.Pharyngeal:

madewiththerootofthetongueandthewallsofthepharynx.

25.Vowel:

thereisnoobstructionofairasisthecasewithconsonants.

Phonology蒋丹芸徐如青薛梅

1,Phonologystudiestherulesgoverningthestructure,distributionandsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables.

2,Aphonemeisthesmallestunitofsoundinalanguage,whichcandistinguishtwowords.

3,thedifferentrealizationsofthesamephonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentarecalledallophones.

4,Aphoneisthesmallestidentifiablespeechsoundfoundinastreamofspeech.

5,Aminimalpairreferstotwowordsinalanguagewhichdifferfromechootherbyonlyomendistinctivesound（onephoneme）andwhichalsodifferinmeaning.

6,Suprasegmentalfeaturesaresyllable,stress,toneandintonation.

7,Stressreferstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.

8,themosthighlystressedvowelisindicatedbyanacuteaccentoverthevowel,usuallycalledprimarystress.

9,theotherstressedvowelsareindicatedbyagraveaccentoverthevowels,usuallycalledsecondarystress.

10,therelativeheightofspeechsounds,asoftenreferredtoaspitch.

11,Languagesthatusethepitchofindividualvowelsorsyllablestocontrastmeaningsofwordsarecalledtonelanguages,suchasChinese.

12,Languagesthatarenottonelanguagesarecalledintonationlanguages,suchasEnglish.

13,Intonationvariationssuggesttheattitudeandemotionsofthespeakerandhisorherattitudeandemotionstowardsthesubjectmatterandthehearer.

Morphology何婷陈薛伟朱玲刘纯

Wordisgenerallydefinedas“thesmallestofthelinguisticunitswhichcanoccuronitsowninspeechorwriting”.

Knowingawordmeansknowingbothitssoundanditsmeaning.

Morpheme:

thesmallestmeaning-bearingunitoflanguage

Morphology:

thestudyofthemeaning-bearingunitofwordandthegoverningrules

---theGreekwordmorphe,whichmeans“form”andthesuffix–ology,whichmeansabranchofscience.

Classificationsofmorphemes（P78）

1.Amorphemeisaminimalunitofmeaning,orgrammaticalfunction.

2.Morphemescanbefreeorbound.Freemorphemesarethosethatcanoccurasindependentwords:

student,look,for.Boundmorphemescannotoccurasindependentwordsbutmustbeattachedtoanothermorpheme:

student+-s,look+-ed,un-+employ+-ment.

3.Morphemescanbederivationalorinflectional.Derivationalmorphemescanbebothfreeandbound.Andderivationalmorphologydealswiththeprocessoflexicalinnovationandinflectionalmorphologyconcernstheprocessofgrammaticaladaptation.

4.Theboundmorphemesthataddedtothebeginningsarecalledprefixesandwhichaddedtotheendsofthewordsarecalledsuffixes.

5.Morphemescanberootedoraffixed.Arootmorphemeisthebaseformofawordandmay,inmanylanguages,occuronitsown.Affixmorphemes,ontheotherhand,belongtoboundmorphemesandareusedonlywhenaddedtoarootoraword.

Affixation:

Addingmorphemestoanexistingwordtocreateanewwordiscalledaffixation.

Compound:

Theprocessofcombingtwoormorethantwoexistingwordstogethertoformnewlexicalitemsiscalledcompounding.

Acronyms:

AcronymsareshorteningsinwhichthecombinedinitiallettersofanexpressionfollowthepronunciationpatternsofEnglishasthespellingindicates-asoneword.（SARS,UNESCO）

Initialisms:

Someshorteningslooklikeacronymsbutarepronouuncedasasetoflettersratherthanasaword.（FBI,NBA）

Blends:

Blendsarewordscreatedbycombingpartsoftwoalreadyexistingwords.（Smog---smokeandfog,motel---moterandhotel）

Conversion:

Insomelanguages,awordcanchangeitscategorywithoutchangingitsformitspronunciation.

Borrowedwords/Loanwords:

Englishhasbeenextraordinarilyreceptivetoborrowedwords,acceptingwordsfromnearlyahundredlanguagesinthelasthundredyears.

Coinages:

（Kodak,Coke,克隆，网虫）

Allomorphs:

thesurfacerepresentationsforthesedifferentpronunciationsofthesamemorpheme

Derivationalmorphology:

dealswiththeprocessoflexicalinnovation

Inflectionalmorphology:

concernstheprocessofgrammaticaladaptation

Syntax张文慧张怡慧何欣慧蔡凤婷

1.Syntax

Syntaxisthesubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudiestheinternalstructureofsentencesandrulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.

2.Sentence

Asentenceisastructurallyindependentunitthatusuallyconsistsofanumberofwordstoformacompletestatement,questionorcommand.Normally,asentenceconsistsofatleastasubjectandapredicate.

3.Syntacticcategory

Afamilyofexpressionthatcansubstituteforoneanotherwithoutlossofgrammaticality.

4.Constituent

Thenaturalgroupingsinasentence.Inanalyzingsentence,thosenaturallygroupedwordsorphrasesarestructuralunits,inotherwords,theconstituentsthatformsentences.

5.Treediagram

Thisknowledgeofsyntacticrelationshipsmaybegraphicallyrepresentedasatreestructure.

S

NPVP

NVNP

DetN

Judyhasason

6.Phrasestructuretree

Atreediagramwithsyntacticcategoryinformationiscalledphrasestructuretree,sometimescalledasconstituentstructuretree.

1.Head:

headistheconstituentmustrequiredinthephrase.Everyphrasalcategoryhasaheadofitssamesyntactictype.NPsareheadedbynouns.VPsareheadedbyverbs,PPsbyprepositions,andApsbyadjectives.

2.Complements:

Everycategorycanhavecomplements,whichcompletethemeaningofthiscategory.

3.Auxiliaryverbs:

Auxiliaryverbsspecifyatimeframeforthesentenceandtheagreementfeaturesofthesubject.

1.Rulesthatchangeabasissyntacticstructureintoasentence-likestructurearetermedtransformationalrules.

2.Thebasicstructuresofsentencesarespecifiedbythephrasestructurerules,calleddeepstructures.

3.Thestructuresthatresultfromtheapplicationoftransformationalrulesaretermedsurfacestructures.

4.UniversalGrammarprovidesthebasicdesignforhumanlanguage.Itclaimsthatlanguagesconformtoabasicstructureandthattherearepointsofvariationineachindividuallanguage.Thosepointsofvariationaretermedvariationparameters.

Semantics王萌婕洪枫朱沁元吴伊雯

1.Semanticsisthestudyofthelinguisticmeaningofmorphemes,words,phrases,andsentences.Ithastwosubfields—lexicalsemanticsandphrasalorsententialsemantics.

2.Meaninginlanguageiscomposedoflinguisticmeaning,socialmeaningandaffectivemeaning.

3.Linguisticmeaningconsistsofbothsenseandreference.

4.Socialmeaningiswhatwerelyonwhenweidentifycertainsocialcharacteristicsofspeakersandsituationsfromthecharacterofthelanguageused.

5.Affectivemeaningistheemotionalconnotationthatisattachedtowordsandsentences.

6.Referencereferstotherelationshipbetweenwordsandthethings,actions,eventsandqualitiestheystandfor.

7.Semanticfeaturesareconsideredtobethesmallestsemanticunitsandcanbeusedasadevicethatindicatesthepresenceorabsenceofsemanticunitsinawordorphrase.

8.Componentialanalysisisanapproachthatcanbeappliedtotheidentityofthesemanticfeaturesencodedinlexicalforms.

9.Words,phrasesandsentencesgenerallyhavesense,whichisapartoftheirmeaning.Byknowingthesenseofanexpression,youcandetermineitsreference,ifany,namely,whatitpointstointheworld.Somemeaningfulexpres