经济增加值的基本原理文献翻译.docx
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经济增加值的基本原理文献翻译
原文:
Foundationsofeconomicvalueadded
TheEVARevolution
Inamarket-driveneconomymanycompanieswillcreatewealth.Otherfirmshoweverwillundoubtedlydestroyit.Discoveringthoseeconomicfactorsthatleadtowealthcreationanddestructionamongcompaniesisimportanttomanyconstituencies,nottheleastofwhichiscorporateofficialsandinvestmentmanagers.Forcorporatemanagers,wealthcreationisfundamentaltotheeconomicsurvivalofthefirm.Managersthatfail(orrefuse)toseetheimportanceofthisimperativeinanopeneconomydosoattheperiloftheorganizationandtheircareer.
Findingthe“best”companiesandindustriesinmarketplaceisofprimaryimportancetoinvestmentmanagers.Withtheproperfinancialtools,portfoliomanagersmaybeabletoenhancetheiractiveperformanceover-and-abovethereturnsavailableonsimilarriskindexedpassivestrategies.AnewanalyticaltoolcalledEVAisnowassistingthiswealth-discoveryandcompany-selectionprocess.Theinnovativechangesthatthisfinancialmetrichavespawnedinthetwinareasofcorporatefinanceandinvestmentmanagementisthedrivingforcebehindwhatcanbeformerlycalledthe“EVArevolution”.
EVAinpractice
TheanalyticaltoolcalledEVA,forEconomicValueAdded,wascommerciallydevelopedin1982bythecorporateadvisoryteamofJoelSternandG.·Bennett·StewartⅢ.Thisfinancialmeticgainedearlyacceptancefromthecorporatecommunitybecauseofitsinnovativewayoflookingatthefirm’srealprofitability,unliketraditionalmeasuresofprofit—suchasEBIT,EBITDA,andnetoperatingincome—EVAlooksatthefirm’s“residualprofitability”,netofboththedirectcostofdebtcapitalandtheindirectcostofequitycapital.Inthisway,EVAservesasamodern-daymeasureofcorporatesuccessbecauseitiscloselyalignedwiththeshareholderwealth-maximizationrequirement.
LargefirmslikeCocaCoca,Diagea,Lilly(Eli),Guidant,andSPXhaveusedEVAasaguidetocreatingeconomicvaluefortheirshareholders.Bonusesandincentivepayschemesatthesefirmshavebeenbuiltaroundthemanager’sability(orlackthereof)togeneratepositiveEVAwithinthefirm’soperatingdivisions.Positivepaymentsaccruetomanagershavingdivisionaloperatingprofitsthatonbalanceexceedtherelevant“costofcapital”,whilenegativeincentivepaymentsmayoccurifthelarger-termdivisionaloperatingprofitsfallshortoftheoverallcapitalcosts.Thus,byaaccountingforboththecostofdebtandequitycapital,EVAgivesmanagerstheincentivetoactlikeshareholderswhenmakingcorporateinvestmentdecisions.
EVAisalsogainingpopularityintheinvestmentcommunity.TheJune1996conferenceon“EconomicValueAdded”atCSFirstBostonandthe“rollout”ofGoldmanSachs’EVAresearchplatforminMay1997istestimonytothisexcitingdevelopment.Indeed,“buyside”investmentfirmslikeGlobalAssetManagementandOppenheimerCapitaluseEVAintheirstockselection,portfolioconstruction,andriskcontrolprocesses.Otherlargeinvestmentfirmsaretakingaseriouslook,andEVAisalsomakingmeaningfulinroadsinworldofglobalperformanceanalytics.Moreover,recentempiricalstudiesintheJournalPortfolioManagement(amongotherfinanceandinvestmentjournals)showsthatEVAisbeingadvancedinboththeacademicandfinancialcommunities.
EvolutionofEVA
Theevolutionofeconomicprofit—economicvalueadded(EVA)—isafascinatingstudywithhistoricalrootsthatcanbetracedbacktotheclassicaleconomist’snotionof“residualincome.”Forinstance,considerthedefinitionofeconomicprofitmadein1890byfamousBritisheconomist,AlfredMarshall,regradingtherealmeaningofabusinessowner’sprofit:
“Whatremainsofhisprofitsafterdeductinginterestonhiscapitalatthecurrentratemaybecalledhisearningsofundertakingormanagement.”
BasedonMarshall’sstatement,itisevidentthattheeconomists’definitionofprofit—namely,aresidualviewofincomeoreconomicprofit—isradicallydifferentfromtheaccountingmeasuresofprofitinusetoday,suchasEBIT,EBITDA,ornetoperatingincome.Thisis,akeydistinctionbetweeneconomicprofitandaccountingprofitliesintheclassicaleconomists’notionthatacompanyisnottrulyprofitableunlessitsrevenuehavecoveredtheusualproductionandoperatingexpensesofrunningabusiness,andprovidedanormalreturnontheowners’investedcapital.Inamorefundamentalsense,thisresidualviewofincomeisreallywhattoday’seconomicprofitmovementisreallyallabout.
WhileEVAisrootedinclassicaleconomictheory,threepioneering20thcenturyAmericaneconomists—IrvingFisherduringthe1930s,andNobelLaureatesFrancoModiglianiandMertonMillerinthelate1950stoearly1960s—expandeduponthefullermeaningofeconomicprofitinacorporatevaluationcontext.IrvingFisherestablishedafundamentallinkbetweenacompany’snetpresentvalue(NPV)anditsdiscountedstreamofexpectedcashflows.Inturn,ModiglianiandMillershowedthatcorporateinvestmentdecisions—asmanifestinpositiveNPVdecisions—aretheprimarydriverofafirm’senterprisevalueandstockprice—asopposedtothefirm’scapitalstructuremixofdebtandequitysecurities.
Basically,thetheoryofeconomicvalueaddedrestsontwoprincipleassertions:
(1)acompanyisnottrulyprofitableunlessitearnsareturnoninvestedcapitalthatexceedstheopportunitycostofcapitaland
(2)thatwealthiscreatedwhenafirm’smanagersmakepositiveNPVinvestmentsdecisionsfortheshareholders.WhatexpandontheseEVAtenetsofwealthcreationaswemoveforwardinthisbook.Fornow,Let’slookatoperationaldefinitionsofEVAthathaveshapedthecurrenteconomicprofitmovementaswellasintroducethelinkbetweenacompany’seconomicprofitanditsmarketvalueadded.
OperationalDefinitionsofEVA
Therearetwopopularoroperational,waysofdefiningEVA——namely,an“accounting”wayanda“finance”.Fromanaccountingperspective,EVAisdefinedasthedifferencebetweenthefirm’snetoperatingprofitaftertax(NOPAT)anditsweighted-averagedollarcostofcapital.Asaresult,EVAdiffersfromtraditionalaccountingmeasuresofcorporateprofitincluding,EBIT(earningsbeforeinterestandtaxes),EBITDA(EBTTplusdepreciationandamortization),netincome,andevenNOPATbecauseitfullyaccountsforthefirm’soverallcapitalcosts.Thisanalyticaldifferenceisimportanttothefirm’sownersbecausetheEVAmeticisnetofboththedirectcostofdebtcapitalandtheindirectcostofequitycapital——asreflectedtheshareholders’requiredreturnoncommonstock.Inthiscontext,EVAcanbeexpressedinmoregeneraltermsas:
EVA=NOPAT-$CostofCapital
Inthisexpression,thefirm’sdollarcostofcapitaliscalculatedbymultiplyingthepercentagecostofcapitalbytheamountofinvestedcapitalaccordingto:
$CostofCapital=[%CostofCapital/100]*Capital
Inturn,thepercentagecostofcapitalisobtainedbytakinga“weightedaverage”ofthefirm’safter-taxcostofdebtandequitycapitalasshownby:
%CostofCapital=[Debtweight*%After-taxdebtcost+Equityweight*%Costofequity]
EVA:
TheFinanceInterpretation
Fromafinanceperspective,EVAisdefinedintermsofhowitrelatestothefirm’s“marketvalueadded.”Inthiscontext,MVA(orNPV)isequaltothepresentvalueofthefirm’sexpectedfutureEVA.Additionally,sinceMVAisequaltothemarketvalueofthefirmlessthe“bookcapital”employedinthebusiness,itcaneasilybeshownthatEVAisrelatedtotheintrinsicvalueofthefirmanditsoutstandingdebtandequitysecurities.Statingtheseconceptsinmoreformaltermsyieldsthefamiliarvalue-basedrelationshipbetweenthefirm’s“marketvalue.
MVAandEVA:
GrowthConsiderations
ThebasicEVAandMVAlinkageoutlinedabovecanalsobeextendedtoamultiperiodframework.Withoutgettingintocomplicatedpricingdetailshere,onecanusea“constantgrowth”EVAmodeltoshowthepricingimportanceofboththefirm’snear-termEVAoutlookanditslong-termEVAgrowthrateindeterminingoverallcorporate(orenterprise)valuation.Inthis“Gordon-like”model,therelationshipbetweenthefirm’sMVAanditsEVAoutlookforthefutureisexpressedas:
MVA=EVA
(1)/(COC-gEVA)
Inthisexpression,EVA
(1)isthefirm’scurrentEVAoutlook(one-yearaheadforecast),gEVAisthefirm’sassessedlong-termEVAgrowthrate,andCOCisthefamilialweightedcostofdebtandequitycapital.
Theconstant-growthEVAmodelshowsthatthefirm’smarketvalueadded(MVA)ispositivelyrelatedtoitsnear-termEVAoutlook,asmeasuredbyEVA
(1),aswellasthefirm’sassessedlong-termEVAgrowthrate,gEVA.Asshown,thefirm’sMVAisalsonegativelyrelatedtoanyunanticipatedchangesintheweighed-averagecostof(debtandequity)capital,COC.However,inviewofmoderndaycapitalstructureprinciples(alaMiller-Modigliani),this“costofcapital”interpretationdoesnotimplythatthefirm’scorporatedebtpolicyhasanymeaningfulimpactonthevaluationofthefirmanditsoutstandingdebtandequityshares.
PREVIEWOFWEALTHCREATERS
Let’snowtakeapreliminarylookattheMVAandEVArelationshipformajorU.S.wealthcreatorsanddestroyers.TheMVAandEVAcharacteristicsforfivelargeU.S.wealthcreators—includingGeneralElectric,CiscoSystems,MicrosoftCorporation,Wal-MartStores,andMerck—forthe11-yearperiodcovering1990to2000areshowninExhibits1.2and1.3.TheselargecapitalizationcompanieswerelistedbySternStewart&Co.asthetop-fiveU.S.wealthcreators(basedonMVAranking)intheir2001PerformanceUniverse.
Exhibit1.2showsthatwealthcreatorslikeGeneralElectric,CiscoSystems,andMerckhavesubstantial