二十四谬误中英对照.docx

二十四谬误中英对照.docx

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二十四谬误中英对照

第一部分考试范围内

本次考试考第一部分列举的前15个。

后面第二部分列举的仅供以后学习参考。

（一）了解基本逻辑，避免常见错误 要了解基本逻辑错误一定不能错过一篇英文小品文LoveIsAFallacy（作者MaxShulman），这里仅列举出十种最常见的逻辑错误。

　　1.草率前提（DictoSimpliciter） 

　　例如：

Womenareonaveragenotasstrongasmenandlessabletoperformwellpolitically.Therefore,womencan'tpulltheirweightingovernmentwork. 

　　点评：

虽然女性确实在政界担任较少工作，但这不意味着女性群体中所有的人都是这样。

　　2.过度概化（HastyGeneralization） 

　　例如：

McDonald'sandKFCofferfoodswithlittlenutrition,andthuswecannotexpectanyfastfoodrestauranttoprovideuswithnutritiousfoods. 

　　点评：

两个个例不足以推出一个真理。

　　3.因果颠倒（PostHoc） 

　　例如：

Mostyoungcriminalswatchviolentmoviesbeforetheycommittheircrimes;obviously,violentmoviesleadtojuveniledelinquency. 

　　点评：

甲事情发生在乙事情之前，这并不代表着先发生的甲事情就是后发生的乙事情的原因。

　　4.矛盾前提（ContradictoryPremises） 

　　例如：

IfGodcandoeverything,canhemakeastonesoheavythathecan'tcarry?

　　点评：

前提条件中就有相互矛盾的地方，结论当然是错误的。

　　5.感性论证（AdMisericordiam） 

　　例如：

Thinkofallthepoor,starvingAfricanchildren!

Howcouldrichcountriesbesocruelasnottohelpthem?

　　点评：

抒情是不能当作论证的。

　　6.错误类比（FalseAnalogy） 

　　例如：

Youngchildrenarelikeflowers---flowersshouldstayawayfromterribleweathertogrow,sochildrenneedtogetridofeverythingnegative. 

　　点评：

孩子和花朵的区别太大。

成长的过程也太复杂。

最好不要用这两者来类比。

　　7.虚假假设（HypothesisContrarytoFact） 

　　例如：

IfTVwerenotinvented,todaypeoplewouldneverhavesuchwonderfulentertainmentbroughtbyTV. 

　　点评：

因为电视已经被发明了，对于过去的否定假设后所得出的结论都是逻辑上的错误结论。

　　8.无关转移（RedHerring） 

　　例如：

Manypeoplesayweneedtoexploittheouterspace,apointwhichIbelieveiswrong,becausetherearesomanypoorpeopleonEarthwhohardlymakeendsmeet. 

　　点评：

有一个问题没解决并不代表着另一个问题不值得解决。

　　9.从众错误（Bandwagon） 

　　例如：

Everyonesaysitisjustifiedtolearnasecondlanguagesowemustlearnone. 

　　点评：

人人都说，或者大多数都说，这并不意味着该观点正确。

　　10.滑坡谬误（Slipperyslope） 

　　例如：

Ifwedon'tcareabouttheenvironment,theworldwilldiein50years. 

　　点评：

从环境问题到世界灭亡，中间有无数环节未提供论证。

ExamplesofSlipperySlope

1."Wehavetostopthetuitionincrease!

Thenextthingyouknow,they'llbecharging$40,000asemester!

"

2."TheUSshouldn'tgetinvolvedmilitarilyinothercountries.Oncethegovernmentsendsinafewtroops,itwillthensendinthousandstodie."

3."Youcannevergiveanyoneabreak.Ifyoudo,they'llwalkalloveryou."

4."We'vegottostopthemfrombanningpornography.Oncetheystartbanningoneformofliterature,theywillneverstop.Nextthingyouknow,theywillbeburningallthebooks!

"

11.appealtoemotion

Youattemptedtomanipulateanemotionalresponseinplaceofavalidorcompellingargument.

Appealstoemotionincludeappealstofear,envy,hatred,pity,pride,andmore.It'simportanttonotethatsometimesalogicallycoherentargumentmayinspireemotionorhaveanemotionalaspect,buttheproblemandfallacyoccurswhenemotionisusedinsteadofalogicalargument,ortoobscurethefactthatnocompellingrationalreasonexistsforone'sposition.Everyone,barsociopaths,isaffectedbyemotion,andsoappealstoemotionareaverycommonandeffectiveargumenttactic,butthey'reultimatelyflawed,dishonest,andtendtomakeone'sopponentsjustifiablyemotional.

Example:

 Lukedidn'twanttoeathissheep'sbrainswithchoppedliverandbrusselsprouts,buthisfathertoldhimtothinkaboutthepoor,starvingchildreninathirdworldcountrywhoweren'tfortunateenoughtohaveanyfoodatall.

12.adhominem,personalattack人身攻击

Youattackedyouropponent'scharacterorpersonaltraitsinanattempttounderminetheirargument.

Adhominemattackscantaketheformofovertlyattackingsomebody,ormoresubtlycastingdoubtontheircharacterorpersonalattributesasawaytodiscredittheirargument.Theresultofanadhomattackcanbetounderminesomeone'scasewithoutactuallyhavingtoengagewithit.

Example:

 AfterSallypresentsaneloquentandcompellingcaseforamoreequitabletaxationsystem,Samaskstheaudiencewhetherweshouldbelieveanythingfromawomanwhoisn'tmarried,wasoncearrested,andsmellsabitweird.

第七条：

诉诸虚伪

13.loadedquestion含沙射影

Youaskedaquestionthathadapresumptionbuiltintoitsothatitcouldn'tbeansweredwithoutappearingguilty.

Loadedquestionfallaciesareparticularlyeffectiveatderailingrationaldebatesbecauseoftheirinflammatorynature-therecipientoftheloadedquestioniscompelledtodefendthemselvesandmayappearflusteredoronthebackfoot.

Example:

 GraceandHelenwerebothromanticallyinterestedinBrad.Oneday,withBradsittingwithinearshot,GraceaskedinaninquisitivetonewhetherHelenwashavinganyproblemswithadrughabit.

14.appealtoauthority诉诸权威

Yousaidthatbecauseanauthoritythinkssomething,itmustthereforebetrue.

It'simportanttonotethatthisfallacyshouldnotbeusedtodismisstheclaimsofexperts,orscientificconsensus.Appealstoauthorityarenotvalidarguments,butnorisitreasonabletodisregardtheclaimsofexpertswhohaveademonstrateddepthofknowledgeunlessonehasasimilarlevelofunderstandingand/oraccesstoempiricalevidence.Howeveritis,entirelypossiblethattheopinionofapersonorinstitutionofauthorityiswrong;thereforetheauthoritythatsuchapersonorinstitutionholdsdoesnothaveanyintrinsicbearinguponwhethertheirclaimsaretrueornot.

Example:

 Notabletodefendhispositionthatevolution'isn'ttrue'Bobsaysthatheknowsascientistwhoalsoquestionsevolution（andpresumablyisn'taprimate）.

15窃取论点.beggingthequestion

Youpresentedacircularargumentinwhichtheconclusionwasincludedinthepremise.

Thislogicallyincoherentargumentoftenarisesinsituationswherepeoplehaveanassumptionthatisveryingrained,andthereforetakenintheirmindsasagiven.Circularreasoningisbadmostlybecauseit'snotverygood.

Example:

 ThewordofZorbotheGreatisflawlessandperfect.WeknowthisbecauseitsayssoinTheGreatandInfallibleBookofZorbo'sBestandMostTruestThingsthatareDefinitelyTrueandShouldNotEverBeQuestioned.

第二部分以下完整版留着资料用。

第一条：

稻草人

1.strawman/strawman

Youmisrepresentedsomeone'sargumenttomakeiteasiertoattack.

Byexaggerating,misrepresenting,orjustcompletelyfabricatingsomeone'sargument,it'smucheasiertopresentyourownpositionasbeingreasonable,butthiskindofdishonestyservestounderminehonestrationaldebate.

Example:

 AfterWillsaidthatweshouldputmoremoneyintohealthandeducation,WarrenrespondedbysayingthathewassurprisedthatWillhatesourcountrysomuchthathewantstoleaveitdefencelessbycuttingmilitaryspending.

第二条：

错误归因

2.falsecause

Youpresumedthatarealorperceivedrelationshipbetweenthingsmeansthatoneisthecauseoftheother.

Manypeopleconfusecorrelation（thingshappeningtogetherorinsequence）forcausation（thatonethingactuallycausestheothertohappen）.Sometimescorrelationiscoincidental,oritmaybeattributabletoacommoncause.

Example:

 Pointingtoafancychart,Rogershowshowtemperatureshavebeenrisingoverthepastfewcenturies,whilstatthesametimethenumbersofpirateshavebeendecreasing;thuspiratescooltheworldandglobalwarmingisahoax.

第三条：

诉诸感情

3.appealtoemotion

Youattemptedtomanipulateanemotionalresponseinplaceofavalidorcompellingargument.

Appealstoemotionincludeappealstofear,envy,hatred,pity,pride,andmore.It'simportanttonotethatsometimesalogicallycoherentargumentmayinspireemotionorhaveanemotionalaspect,buttheproblemandfallacyoccurswhenemotionisusedinsteadofalogicalargument,ortoobscurethefactthatnocompellingrationalreasonexistsforone'sposition.Everyone,barsociopaths,isaffectedbyemotion,andsoappealstoemotionareaverycommonandeffectiveargumenttactic,butthey'reultimatelyflawed,dishonest,andtendtomakeone'sopponentsjustifiablyemotional.

Example:

 Lukedidn'twanttoeathissheep'sbrainswithchoppedliverandbrusselsprouts,buthisfathertoldhimtothinkaboutthepoor,starvingchildreninathirdworldcountrywhoweren'tfortunateenoughtohaveanyfoodatall.

第四条：

谬误谬误

4.thefallacyfallacy

Youpresumedthatbecauseaclaimhasbeenpoorlyargued,orafallacyhasbeenmade,thattheclaimitselfmustbewrong.

Itisentirelypossibletomakeaclaimthatisfalseyetarguewithlogicalcoherencyforthatclaim,justasispossibletomakeaclaimthatistrueandjustifyitwithvariousfallaciesandpoorarguments.

Example:

 RecognisingthatAmandahadcommittedafallacyinarguingthatweshouldeathealthyfoodbecauseanutritionistsaiditwaspopular,Alysesaidweshouldthereforeeatbacondoublecheeseburgerseveryday.

第五条：

滑坡谬误

5.slipperyslope

YousaidthatifweallowAtohappen,thenZwilleventuallyhappentoo,thereforeAshouldnothappen.

Theproblemwiththisreasoningisthatitavoidsengagingwiththeissueathand,andinsteadshiftsattentiontoextremehypotheticals.Becausenoproofispresentedtoshowthatsuchextremehypotheticalswillinfactoccur,thisfallacyhastheformofanappealtoemotionfallacybyleveragingfear.Ineffecttheargumentathandisunfairlytaintedbyunsubstantiatedconjecture.

Example:

 ColinClosetassertsthatifweallowsame-sexcouplestomarry,thenthenextthingweknowwe'llbeallowingpeopletomarrytheirparents,theircarsandevenmonkeys.

第六条：

人身攻击

6.adhominem,personalattack

Youattackedyouropponent'scharacterorpersonaltraitsinanattempttounderminetheirargument.

Adhominemattackscantaketheformofovertlyattackingsomebody,ormoresubtlycastingdoubtontheircharacterorpersonalattri