Chapter Two Phonetics.docx

Chapter Two Phonetics.docx

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ChapterTwoPhonetics

ChapterTwoPhonetics

0.Introduction

0.1Definition:

Phoneticsstudiesspeechsoundsofallhumanlanguages.EnglishphoneticsdealswithallsoundsavailableintheEnglishlanguage.

0.2Threesub-branches:

A.Articulatoryphonetics（发音语音学）isconcernedwithhowasoundisproducedbythevocalorgans.

B.Acousticphonetics（声学语音学）dealswithhowasoundistransmittedfromthespeaker'smouthtothelistener'sears.

C.Auditoryphonetics（听觉语音学）investigateshowasoundisperceivedbythelistener.

Thesesub-branchesarerelatedtotheproduction,transmissionandreceptionofasoundrespectively.

1.Thespeechorgans（articulators）

i.发音器官名称：

（1）lips（唇）（theupperlipandthelowerlip）,

（2）teeth（齿）（theupperteethandthelowerteeth）,（3）teeth-ridge/alveolarridge（齿龈），（4）hardpalate（硬腭），（5）softpalate/velum（软腭），（6）uvula（小舌），（7）tipoftongue（舌尖），（8）bladeoftongue（舌面），（9）backoftongue（舌根），（10）pharynx（咽），（11）epiglottis（会厌），（12）foodpassage（食道），（13）vocalcords（声带）

ii.Whatisvocaltract?

Thespeechorgansabovethelarynx（喉）formthevocaltract（发音系统）.

iii.Whatarethetwopartsofthevocaltract?

oralcavity（口腔），nasalcavity（鼻腔）

2.Consonantsandvowels

2.0Concepts

A.Whatisaconsonant?

Aconsonantisaspeechsoundwheretheairstreamfromthelungsiseithercompletelyblocked,orpartiallyblockedorwheretheopeningissonarrowthattheairescapeswithaudiblefriction.Examples:

[p],[b],[l],[f],[v]

B.Whatisavowel?

Avowelisaspeechsoundinwhichtheairstreamfromthelungsisnotblockedinanywayinthemouthorthroat,andwhichispronouncedwithvibrationofthevocalcords.

2.1TheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet

A.IsthespellingofwordsareliablemeanstodescribeEnglishsounds?

Whyorwhynot?

Answer:

No.Becausesometimesasinglelettermayrepresentdifferentsounds.Forexample,theletterarepresentsfivedifferentvowelsinthewordsbelow:

Cat，hate，father，wall，sofa

Sometimes,differentlettersorcombinationsoflettersmayrepresentasinglesound.Forexample,thebold-facedlettersarepronouncedasasinglevowelinthefollowingwords:

Feet，meat，seize，piece，key，we

Thus,wecannotdependonthespellingofwordstodescribethesoundsofEnglish.

B.Whatmeanscanbeusedforthispurpose?

Answer:

In1889,theInternationalPhoneticAssociationdevelopedtheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet.Itisasystemofsymbolswhichcanrepresentthepronunciationofwordsinanylanguage.Theadvantageofthissystemisthatwithinthesystem,onesymbolrepresentsonesoundandeverysymbolhasaconsistentvalue.

C.HowmanysymbolsintheInternationalPhoneticAlphabetstandforconsonantsandhowmanyforvowels?

Answer:

Accordingtotherevisedformin1972,therearealtogether72symbolsforconsonantsand25forvowels.

2.2DescribingtheEnglishConsonants

TheEnglishconsonantsaredescribedaccordingtofourdimensionswhichinclude:

A.thepositionofthesoftpalate

B.thepresenceortheabsenceofvocal-cordvibration

C.theplaceofarticulation

D.themannerofarticulation

（1）Thepositionofthesoftpalate（参见课本33页图）：

Accordingtothepositionofthesoftpalate,theEnglishconsonantscanbedividedintotwogroups:

oralsounds,nasalsounds.

Whenthesoftpalateisraisedagainstthebackofthethroat,thenasalpassageisblockedandtheairflowisforcedtogoentirelythroughthemouth.Thesoundsproducedinthiswayarecalledoralsounds.

Whenthesoftpalateislowered,thenasalpassageisopenandtheairflowcangothroughthenoseaswellasthemouth.Suchsoundsarecallednasalsounds.

（2）Thepresenceorabsenceofvocal-cordvibration

i.Wherearevocalcords?

Vocalcordsareinsidethelarynx（喉）.

ii.Whatisglottis?

Thespacebetweenthevocalcordsiscalledtheglottis.

iii.Howareconsonantsclassifiedaccordingtothepresenceorabsenceofvocal-cordvibration?

Theyareclassifiedintovoicelesssoundsandvoicedsounds.

A.Whenthevocalcordsarespreadapart,theairstreamisnotblockedattheglottisanditpassesfreelyintothevocaltractwithoutvocal-cordvibration.Thesoundsproducedinthiswayarecalledvoicelesssounds.

B.Whenthevocalcordsarenearlytouchingeachotherbutnotcompletelyclosed,theairstreampassingthroughtheglottishastocausevibration.Thesoundsmadeinthiswayarecalledvoicedsounds.

（3）Placeofarticulation

i.Definition:

Thelocation,insidethemouth,atwhichthecontacttakesplace,iscalledtheplaceofarticulation.

ii.Classification（参见课本39页表格）：

1）bilabials（双唇音）:

Thesoundsmadebybothlipsarecalledbilabials.

4bilabials:

[p][b][m][w]

2）labiodentals（唇齿音）:

Thesoundsproducedbythecontactbetweentheupperteethandlowerliparecalledlabiodentals.

2labiodentals:

[f][v]

3）dentals（interdentals）（舌齿音）:

thesoundsmadewiththetipofthetonguebehindtheupperfrontteethorwiththetonguetipbetweentheupperandlowerteetharecalleddentals.

2dentals:

[][]

4）alveolars（齿龈音）:

Thesoundsarticulatedbyraisingthetiporthebladeofthetonguetothealveolarridgearecalledalveolars.

6alveolars:

[s][z][t][d][l][n]

5）post-alveolars（齿龈后音）:

Thesoundsformedbybringingthetipofthetonguetotherearpartofthealveolarridgearecalledpost-alveolars.

3post-alveolars:

[r][tr][dr]

6）alveo-palatals（齿龈硬腭音）:

Thesoundsproducedwiththetongueattheveryfrontofthehardpalate,nearthealveolarridge,arecalledalveo-palatals.

4alveo-palatals:

[][][t][d]

7）palatals（硬腭音）:

Thesoundsmadebybringingthefrontofthetonguetothehardpalatearecalledpalatals.

3palatals:

[j][c][J]

8）velars（软腭音）:

Thesoundsarticulatedbyraisingthebackofthetonguetothesoftpalatearecalledvelars.

3velars:

[][k][g]

9）glottals（声门音）:

Thesearesoundsthatareproducedwithouttheactiveuseofthetongueandotherpartsofthemouth.Thereareglottals.Oneis[h].Itisproducedwhenthevocalcordsarehalf-openandtheairstreamgoesthroughtheglottiswithfriction.Theotheris[?

].Itismadewhenthevocalcordsaretightlyclosedverybrieflyandthenreleased.

2glottals:

[h][?

]inwritten[`ri?

n]

（4）Mannerofarticulation（参见课本39页表格）：

Accordingtomannerofarticulation,consonantsaredividedintofivegroups:

stops,fricatives,affricates,liquids,glides.

1）stops（闭止音）（包括plosives爆破音，nasals鼻腔音）：

threestages:

A.closurestage-thearticulatorscomeintocontactwitheachothertoformacompleteclosure.

B.holdstage-theairpressurebuildsupbehindtheclosure.

C.releasestage-thearticulatorsaresuddenlyseparatedandtheairstreamgoesoutwithaplosion.

6plosives:

[p][b][t][d][k][g]

3nasals:

[m][n][9]

2）fricatives（摩擦音）:

Theyaresoundsthatareproducedbybringingtwoarticulatorsveryclosewithoutacompleteclosuresothattheairstreammovesbetweenthemwithaudiblefriction.

9fricatives:

[f][v][][][s][z][][][h]

3）affricates（破擦音）:

Sometimestwoarticulatorsarebroughttogethertoformacompleteclosurebutnotfollowedbyasuddenreleaselikeastop,ratherbyaslowreleasewithaudiblefriction.Soundsproducedinthiswayarecalledaffricates.

4affricates:

[tr][dr][t][d]

4）liquids（流音）:

Liquidsareproducedwithsomeobstructionoftheairstreaminthemouthbutnotenoughtocausefriction.

[l]isalateralliquid.

[r]isacentralliquid.

5）glides（滑音、延音）:

Glidesareproducedwhentwoarticulatorsareclosetoeachother,butnotclosetosuchanextentthataturbulentairstreamiscreated.Theyaretraditionallycalledsemi-vowels.

2glides:

[j][w]

2.3DescribingtheEnglishvowels

（1）Velumstate

Accordingtothestateofthevelum,vowelsareclassifiedintotwogroups:

oralvowelsandnasalvowels.

Vowelscanalsobeproducedwitharaisedvelumoraloweredvelum.Whenthevelumisloweredtopermittheairstreamtoflowthroughthemouthaswellasthenose,nasalvowelsaremade.InEnglish,nasalvowelsoccuronlybeforenasalconsonants,andoralvowelsbeforeoralconsonantsorattheendofwords.

（2）Tongueposition（参见课本40页图表）：

Itiscustomarytodescribethetonguepositionintermsoftwodimensions:

firstly,verticaldistancebetweentheuppersurfaceofthetongueandthepalate;secondly,thepartofthetongue,betweenfrontandback,whichisraisedhighest.Simplyspeaking,thepositionofthetongueisdescribedashigh-mid-lowtoindicatethedegreeoftheheighttowhichthetongueisraised,andasfront-central-backtospecifythepartofthetonguewhichisinvolved.

（3）Liprounding

Intermsoftheshapeofthelips,Englishvowelsareclassifiedintoroundedvowels（圆唇元音）andunroundedvowels（不圆唇元音）.

InEnglish,allthebackvowelsexcept[a:

]areroundedvowels.

（4）Diphthongs（双元音），purevowels/simplevowels/monophthongs（单元音）

Definition:

Diphthongsarevowelsthatconsistofamovementorglidefromonevoweltoanother.

Classification:

InEnglish,thereare8diphthongs.Thecenteringdiphthongsaremadebyaglidetowardsacentralvowel[].Theclosingdiphthongsareproducedbyamovementfromarelativelylowervoweltoahighervowel.参见课本42页图表。

（5）Triphthongs（三合元音）

Definition:

Triphthongsareproducedbyaglidefromonevoweltoanotherandthentoathirdonerapidlyandcontinuously.

InEnglish,thereare5triphthongs.Somelinguistsdescribethemasconsistingofaclosingdiphthong+[].

3.Phoneticfeatures

Definitionoffeaturespecification:

aphoneticfeaturetogetherwithitsvalue（音值）iscalledafeaturespecification.

1）ThemostcommonfeaturesusedforEnglishconsonants:

[nasal]（鼻音的），[voiced]（浊音的），[consonantal]（辅音的），[vocalic]（元音的），[continuant]（连续音的），[anterior]（前部音的），[coronal]（舌面音的）and