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ChapterTwoPhonetics
ChapterTwoPhonetics
0.Introduction
0.1Definition:
Phoneticsstudiesspeechsoundsofallhumanlanguages.EnglishphoneticsdealswithallsoundsavailableintheEnglishlanguage.
0.2Threesub-branches:
A.Articulatoryphonetics(发音语音学)isconcernedwithhowasoundisproducedbythevocalorgans.
B.Acousticphonetics(声学语音学)dealswithhowasoundistransmittedfromthespeaker'smouthtothelistener'sears.
C.Auditoryphonetics(听觉语音学)investigateshowasoundisperceivedbythelistener.
Thesesub-branchesarerelatedtotheproduction,transmissionandreceptionofasoundrespectively.
1.Thespeechorgans(articulators)
i.发音器官名称:
(1)lips(唇)(theupperlipandthelowerlip),
(2)teeth(齿)(theupperteethandthelowerteeth),(3)teeth-ridge/alveolarridge(齿龈),(4)hardpalate(硬腭),(5)softpalate/velum(软腭),(6)uvula(小舌),(7)tipoftongue(舌尖),(8)bladeoftongue(舌面),(9)backoftongue(舌根),(10)pharynx(咽),(11)epiglottis(会厌),(12)foodpassage(食道),(13)vocalcords(声带)
ii.Whatisvocaltract?
Thespeechorgansabovethelarynx(喉)formthevocaltract(发音系统).
iii.Whatarethetwopartsofthevocaltract?
oralcavity(口腔),nasalcavity(鼻腔)
2.Consonantsandvowels
2.0Concepts
A.Whatisaconsonant?
Aconsonantisaspeechsoundwheretheairstreamfromthelungsiseithercompletelyblocked,orpartiallyblockedorwheretheopeningissonarrowthattheairescapeswithaudiblefriction.Examples:
[p],[b],[l],[f],[v]
B.Whatisavowel?
Avowelisaspeechsoundinwhichtheairstreamfromthelungsisnotblockedinanywayinthemouthorthroat,andwhichispronouncedwithvibrationofthevocalcords.
2.1TheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet
A.IsthespellingofwordsareliablemeanstodescribeEnglishsounds?
Whyorwhynot?
Answer:
No.Becausesometimesasinglelettermayrepresentdifferentsounds.Forexample,theletterarepresentsfivedifferentvowelsinthewordsbelow:
Cat,hate,father,wall,sofa
Sometimes,differentlettersorcombinationsoflettersmayrepresentasinglesound.Forexample,thebold-facedlettersarepronouncedasasinglevowelinthefollowingwords:
Feet,meat,seize,piece,key,we
Thus,wecannotdependonthespellingofwordstodescribethesoundsofEnglish.
B.Whatmeanscanbeusedforthispurpose?
Answer:
In1889,theInternationalPhoneticAssociationdevelopedtheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet.Itisasystemofsymbolswhichcanrepresentthepronunciationofwordsinanylanguage.Theadvantageofthissystemisthatwithinthesystem,onesymbolrepresentsonesoundandeverysymbolhasaconsistentvalue.
C.HowmanysymbolsintheInternationalPhoneticAlphabetstandforconsonantsandhowmanyforvowels?
Answer:
Accordingtotherevisedformin1972,therearealtogether72symbolsforconsonantsand25forvowels.
2.2DescribingtheEnglishConsonants
TheEnglishconsonantsaredescribedaccordingtofourdimensionswhichinclude:
A.thepositionofthesoftpalate
B.thepresenceortheabsenceofvocal-cordvibration
C.theplaceofarticulation
D.themannerofarticulation
(1)Thepositionofthesoftpalate(参见课本33页图):
Accordingtothepositionofthesoftpalate,theEnglishconsonantscanbedividedintotwogroups:
oralsounds,nasalsounds.
Whenthesoftpalateisraisedagainstthebackofthethroat,thenasalpassageisblockedandtheairflowisforcedtogoentirelythroughthemouth.Thesoundsproducedinthiswayarecalledoralsounds.
Whenthesoftpalateislowered,thenasalpassageisopenandtheairflowcangothroughthenoseaswellasthemouth.Suchsoundsarecallednasalsounds.
(2)Thepresenceorabsenceofvocal-cordvibration
i.Wherearevocalcords?
Vocalcordsareinsidethelarynx(喉).
ii.Whatisglottis?
Thespacebetweenthevocalcordsiscalledtheglottis.
iii.Howareconsonantsclassifiedaccordingtothepresenceorabsenceofvocal-cordvibration?
Theyareclassifiedintovoicelesssoundsandvoicedsounds.
A.Whenthevocalcordsarespreadapart,theairstreamisnotblockedattheglottisanditpassesfreelyintothevocaltractwithoutvocal-cordvibration.Thesoundsproducedinthiswayarecalledvoicelesssounds.
B.Whenthevocalcordsarenearlytouchingeachotherbutnotcompletelyclosed,theairstreampassingthroughtheglottishastocausevibration.Thesoundsmadeinthiswayarecalledvoicedsounds.
(3)Placeofarticulation
i.Definition:
Thelocation,insidethemouth,atwhichthecontacttakesplace,iscalledtheplaceofarticulation.
ii.Classification(参见课本39页表格):
1)bilabials(双唇音):
Thesoundsmadebybothlipsarecalledbilabials.
4bilabials:
[p][b][m][w]
2)labiodentals(唇齿音):
Thesoundsproducedbythecontactbetweentheupperteethandlowerliparecalledlabiodentals.
2labiodentals:
[f][v]
3)dentals(interdentals)(舌齿音):
thesoundsmadewiththetipofthetonguebehindtheupperfrontteethorwiththetonguetipbetweentheupperandlowerteetharecalleddentals.
2dentals:
[][]
4)alveolars(齿龈音):
Thesoundsarticulatedbyraisingthetiporthebladeofthetonguetothealveolarridgearecalledalveolars.
6alveolars:
[s][z][t][d][l][n]
5)post-alveolars(齿龈后音):
Thesoundsformedbybringingthetipofthetonguetotherearpartofthealveolarridgearecalledpost-alveolars.
3post-alveolars:
[r][tr][dr]
6)alveo-palatals(齿龈硬腭音):
Thesoundsproducedwiththetongueattheveryfrontofthehardpalate,nearthealveolarridge,arecalledalveo-palatals.
4alveo-palatals:
[][][t][d]
7)palatals(硬腭音):
Thesoundsmadebybringingthefrontofthetonguetothehardpalatearecalledpalatals.
3palatals:
[j][c][J]
8)velars(软腭音):
Thesoundsarticulatedbyraisingthebackofthetonguetothesoftpalatearecalledvelars.
3velars:
[][k][g]
9)glottals(声门音):
Thesearesoundsthatareproducedwithouttheactiveuseofthetongueandotherpartsofthemouth.Thereareglottals.Oneis[h].Itisproducedwhenthevocalcordsarehalf-openandtheairstreamgoesthroughtheglottiswithfriction.Theotheris[?
].Itismadewhenthevocalcordsaretightlyclosedverybrieflyandthenreleased.
2glottals:
[h][?
]inwritten[`ri?
n]
(4)Mannerofarticulation(参见课本39页表格):
Accordingtomannerofarticulation,consonantsaredividedintofivegroups:
stops,fricatives,affricates,liquids,glides.
1)stops(闭止音)(包括plosives爆破音,nasals鼻腔音):
threestages:
A.closurestage-thearticulatorscomeintocontactwitheachothertoformacompleteclosure.
B.holdstage-theairpressurebuildsupbehindtheclosure.
C.releasestage-thearticulatorsaresuddenlyseparatedandtheairstreamgoesoutwithaplosion.
6plosives:
[p][b][t][d][k][g]
3nasals:
[m][n][9]
2)fricatives(摩擦音):
Theyaresoundsthatareproducedbybringingtwoarticulatorsveryclosewithoutacompleteclosuresothattheairstreammovesbetweenthemwithaudiblefriction.
9fricatives:
[f][v][][][s][z][][][h]
3)affricates(破擦音):
Sometimestwoarticulatorsarebroughttogethertoformacompleteclosurebutnotfollowedbyasuddenreleaselikeastop,ratherbyaslowreleasewithaudiblefriction.Soundsproducedinthiswayarecalledaffricates.
4affricates:
[tr][dr][t][d]
4)liquids(流音):
Liquidsareproducedwithsomeobstructionoftheairstreaminthemouthbutnotenoughtocausefriction.
[l]isalateralliquid.
[r]isacentralliquid.
5)glides(滑音、延音):
Glidesareproducedwhentwoarticulatorsareclosetoeachother,butnotclosetosuchanextentthataturbulentairstreamiscreated.Theyaretraditionallycalledsemi-vowels.
2glides:
[j][w]
2.3DescribingtheEnglishvowels
(1)Velumstate
Accordingtothestateofthevelum,vowelsareclassifiedintotwogroups:
oralvowelsandnasalvowels.
Vowelscanalsobeproducedwitharaisedvelumoraloweredvelum.Whenthevelumisloweredtopermittheairstreamtoflowthroughthemouthaswellasthenose,nasalvowelsaremade.InEnglish,nasalvowelsoccuronlybeforenasalconsonants,andoralvowelsbeforeoralconsonantsorattheendofwords.
(2)Tongueposition(参见课本40页图表):
Itiscustomarytodescribethetonguepositionintermsoftwodimensions:
firstly,verticaldistancebetweentheuppersurfaceofthetongueandthepalate;secondly,thepartofthetongue,betweenfrontandback,whichisraisedhighest.Simplyspeaking,thepositionofthetongueisdescribedashigh-mid-lowtoindicatethedegreeoftheheighttowhichthetongueisraised,andasfront-central-backtospecifythepartofthetonguewhichisinvolved.
(3)Liprounding
Intermsoftheshapeofthelips,Englishvowelsareclassifiedintoroundedvowels(圆唇元音)andunroundedvowels(不圆唇元音).
InEnglish,allthebackvowelsexcept[a:
]areroundedvowels.
(4)Diphthongs(双元音),purevowels/simplevowels/monophthongs(单元音)
Definition:
Diphthongsarevowelsthatconsistofamovementorglidefromonevoweltoanother.
Classification:
InEnglish,thereare8diphthongs.Thecenteringdiphthongsaremadebyaglidetowardsacentralvowel[].Theclosingdiphthongsareproducedbyamovementfromarelativelylowervoweltoahighervowel.参见课本42页图表。
(5)Triphthongs(三合元音)
Definition:
Triphthongsareproducedbyaglidefromonevoweltoanotherandthentoathirdonerapidlyandcontinuously.
InEnglish,thereare5triphthongs.Somelinguistsdescribethemasconsistingofaclosingdiphthong+[].
3.Phoneticfeatures
Definitionoffeaturespecification:
aphoneticfeaturetogetherwithitsvalue(音值)iscalledafeaturespecification.
1)ThemostcommonfeaturesusedforEnglishconsonants:
[nasal](鼻音的),[voiced](浊音的),[consonantal](辅音的),[vocalic](元音的),[continuant](连续音的),[anterior](前部音的),[coronal](舌面音的)and